John Kotelawala

Domestic policy

Anti-communism

Kotelawala was a committed opponent of communism and made combating its influence in Ceylon a prominent part of his domestic policy. In his first broadcast as prime minister, he stated that one of his foremost duties would be to combat communism in the country. His government subsequently took measures against communist political activity, including restricting the entry of foreign communists and seeking greater control over communist influence at the University of Ceylon. ^[4]

His anti-communism was also prominent in his political rhetoric. In a speech to the House of Representatives on 21 June 1955, Kotelawala described the Soviet Union as Ceylon's “enemy No. 1” and warned that Communist Party leaders could become instruments of Soviet influence. His government and the United National Party frequently portrayed the local communist movement as a threat to Ceylon's democratic political system.^[2]

He took a hardline stand against trade unions and left-wing parties. He formed the Ceylon Railway Engineer Corps and Post and Telegraph Signals to minimise the effects on transport and communication in the event of trade union action.

Economic Policy

Kotelawala's premiership was marked by a recovery in the economy following the disruption caused by the 1953 Hartal. Economic growth, which had contracted by 0.9 percent in 1953, rose to 5.3 percent in 1954 and 5.0 percent in 1955. The improvement was accompanied by increased export earnings and stronger agricultural production, with gross national product reaching an estimated Rs. 5.1 billion in 1955, a 6.8 percent increase over the previous year. In 1955, Ceylon recorded a trade surplus of Rs. 532 million, the largest ever recorded at the time, while the current account recorded a surplus of Rs. 323 million. ^[3]

Housing and Development

Kotelawala's government gave housing a prominent place in its domestic programme. In 1953, the government gave housing Cabinet-level recognition and appointed Senator Kanthiah Vaithianathan as Minister of Housing. This was followed by the establishment of the Department of National Housing in 1953, the National Housing Fund in 1954 and the enactment of the National Housing Act in 1954. The government's housing policy was intended to expand access to home ownership among the middle and working classes. Vaithianathan described its objective as creating a “house-owning democracy”.

The programme combined direct government provision with assistance for individuals and building societies to construct their own homes. The government planned to construct houses and blocks of flats that could be acquired through rent-purchase arrangements, while also providing land, financial assistance and loans at graded rates of interest to people seeking to build their own houses.

The most prominent project associated with the programme was the Watapuluwa Housing Scheme in Kandy, launched in 1955. Kandy had a large population of public servants but faced a shortage of government quarters and private housing, leaving many officials in inadequate accommodation. A Kandy Public Servants' Building Society, established in 1954, successfully petitioned the government to acquire land at Watapuluwa for a housing scheme. The government subsequently authorised a special salary-loan arrangement through which public servants could obtain financing to acquire land and construct their own houses.

Watapuluwa was significant for the way in which the government, housing authorities and prospective residents participated in the development process. Architect Minnette de Silva, who was the chief architect of the project, consulted beneficiaries about their household requirements, preferences and financial circumstances and developed a range of house types suited to the site's topography and the varying means of residents. The scheme also incorporated community facilities and required beneficiaries to contribute towards communal services. Construction was disrupted following the change of government in 1956 but the project was subsequently completed in 1958.^[15]

Royal Visit to Ceylon

He hosted Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh in Ceylon during their Royal Commonwealth Tour in April 1954, using the occasion to request the appointment of a Ceylonese Governor-General when Lord Soulbury's tenure ended. This came to be when Sir Oliver Goonetilleke was appointed Governor-General in July 1954. Kotelawala himself was appointed to the Imperial Privy Council during the visit.

Foreign policy

As prime minister, Kotelawala led Sri Lanka into the United Nations and contributed to Sri Lanka's expanding foreign relations, particularly with other Asian countries.

Kotelawala played an important role in the development of post-colonial Asian diplomacy. In April 1954, he convened the Colombo Conference, bringing together the prime ministers of Ceylon, India, Pakistan, Burma and Indonesia to discuss regional and international affairs, including the conflict in Indochina. The meeting subsequently led to the proposal for a wider Asian-African conference, which was held in Bandung, Indonesia, in 1955.^[16]

Kotelawala's foreign policy combined support for Asian regional cooperation with a strong opposition to communism. At Bandung, he argued that communist expansion and Soviet domination of Eastern Europe should be regarded as forms of imperialism alongside Western colonialism. His position brought him into disagreement with Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai, who favoured a stronger emphasis on Western colonialism. Kotelawala's strongly anti-communist speeches at Bandung received favourable coverage in the Western media. His speeches attracted considerable attention in newspapers in Britain, Canada, Italy and the United States, with several portraying him as a prominent advocate of opposition to communism at the conference.^[2] Kotelawala's outspoken opposition to communist colonialism and his willingness to challenge the prevailing views at Bandung raised his profile as a prominent figure in Asian diplomacy. His position presented an alternative to Nehru's approach to the emerging Afro-Asian movement. The Washington Post, in an article published on 23 April 1955, described Kotelawala as an emerging challenge to Nehru's position in Asian leadership. ^[2]

Kotelawala nevertheless maintained that Ceylon should not align itself with either Cold War bloc and resisted pressure for the country to join the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). His approach has consequently been described as a pragmatic attempt to maintain a middle course while preserving Ceylon's Western security and economic ties and developing relations with its Asian neighbours.^[16][17]

The famous exchange between Kotelawala and Nehru occurred in the context of these disagreements. After Kotelawala delivered his controversial Bandung speech, Nehru questioned why he had not shown him the speech beforehand. Kotelawala replied, “Why should I? Do you show me yours before you make them?” Kotelawala later wrote that he regarded Nehru as a close friend and did not consider the exchange to have damaged their relationship.^[18]

At the Bandung Conference, Kotelawala also raised the issue of reforming the United Nations system. He advocated the abolition of the veto power held by the major powers in the Security Council and proposed that the Council should instead be a fully elected body responsible to the General Assembly.^[2]

Kotelawala's government also maintained close military ties with Western powers during the early Cold War. In April 1954, he permitted seven United States Globemaster aircraft carrying French paratroopers bound for the war in Indochina to land at Katunayake Airport, where they were refuelled and serviced.^[2]

In November 1954, Kotelawala embarked on a goodwill tour of several countries, including Italy, France, the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States, Japan, the Philippines, Malaya and Indonesia. During his visit to the United States, he met President Dwight D. Eisenhower at the White House and held discussions with Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and other senior officials. He subsequently described the visit as an important diplomatic engagement and used his public appearances in the United States to advocate greater Western economic assistance to developing countries as a means of countering the spread of communism.^[2]

Emphasising the importance of strengthening Ceylon's diplomatic representation abroad, following his tour, he told the House of Representatives that Ceylon was inadequately represented overseas and argued that a stronger diplomatic presence would advance the country's interests in trade and other areas. ^[2]

Electoral defeat

His government had to deal with economic problems and ethnic tensions. Although his parliamentary term was valid till 1957, he had the Governor General dissolve Parliament in 1956, calling for fresh elections. However, the UNP faced a major defeat in the 1956 general elections by a group of more radically chauvinistic Sinhalese parties under the leadership of Solomon Bandaranaike which formed a coalition called the Mahajana Eksath Peramuna, which had non-compete agreements with other leftist parties. Of the 76 candidates fielded by the UNP only eight were elected to parliament, resulting in a humiliating defeat which made the UNP a minority in the opposition.

Defence university

Kotelawala was a strong supporter of the military and maintained close links with the army. He was the first Chairman of the Ceylon Light Infantry Association in 1974 and was the President of the Ceylon Ex Servicemen's Association from 1948 to his death. In 1978, the commanders of the armed forces identified a need to establish a Defence university to cater to the academic training of its officers. Although the government approved it, funds were limited and no location was provided by the government. In 1979, Lieutenant General Denis Perera, Commander of the Sri Lankan Army approached Kotelawala with the proposal of donating his home Kandawala and its 50 acres estate to the state to establish a Defence university. Six months later having reviewed the proposal and consulted his heirs, Kotelawala agreed to donate Kandawala following his death. On 11 July 1980, he signed a deed of gift with the President, transferring Kandawala at President's House, Colombo and a formal ceremony to establish the institution was scheduled for 11 October 1980.^[20]