Kabardia

Greater Kabardia

Greater Kabardia, or Upper Kabardia^[13] occupied a vast territory in the central part of the North Caucasus. Its lands stretched from the Kuban river and Kuma river in the north and northwest to the confluence of the Baksan and Terek rivers. To the south, the territory extended along the northern slopes of the Caucasus Mountains, from the region of Elbrus eastward to the confluence of the Terek and Malka rivers. This area included fertile plains, foothills, and important river valleys which supported agriculture, pastoralism, and trade routes connecting the steppe with the mountain regions. Within Greater Kabarda, several powerful princely clans held a dominant political position. Among the most influential were the families of the Jembulat, Hatokhshoqo, and Misost, who controlled large territories and played a central role in the political leadership of Kabardia.^[9]

Lesser Kabardia

Lesser Kabardia was a historical region of Kabardia ruled by Talostaney and Jilakhstaney. The region was divided by Greater Kabardia via the Terek River, Kabardians who lived on the eastern coast of Terek were called "Lesser Kabardians" and those who lived on the west were called "Greater" or "Upper Kabardians".^[13] The territories of Lesser Kabardia now consist of modern-day Tersk district in Kabardino-Balkaria, Nadterechny and Grozny districts in northeastern Chechnya, as well as parts of Ingushetia and North Ossetia.^[14]

At the beginning of the 19th century, Lesser Kabardia bordered the Terek river and Greater Kabardia to the west and north, the southernmost part abutted Vladikavkaz and southeastern parts were bordering the Sunzha river.^[15] The territory of Lesser Kabardia was rich in both forests and water. The lands were sparsely populated, and the steppes were used by local residents as pastures^[16][17] The Ossetian mountain societies and the Ingush were dependent on Lesser Kabardia, and the Karachay-Balkars were dependent on Greater Kabardia.^[9]

Era of Beslan

In the 1530s, Kabardian influence expanded further toward the Caspian Sea. Beslan Jankhot of Kabardia pursued an active policy in the Lower Terek basin. According to Circassian tradition, during his reign Kabardian forces reached Astrakhan and conducted raids as far as Derbent. He concluded an alliance with the Shamkhalate of Tarki, the largest feudal domain in Dagestan, which helped secure trade routes linking Astrakhan and Derbent with Kabardia.^[33]

According to folklore, Kabardian expeditions to Astrakhan were periodic, described as occurring every nine to ten years in order to obtain textiles and other goods that were scarce in Kabardia. These campaigns reportedly yielded significant booty and strengthened the authority of the supreme prince.^[34]

Historically, Adyghe Khabze underwent multiple reforms to adapt to changing societal needs.^[35][36]<ref">Sözer Özdemir, Şebnem (2021). "Conceptual Framework of a Transmission Project for Safeguarding Circassian Dances in Turkey" [Türkiye'deki Çerkes Danslarını Koruma Aimlı Bir Aktarım Projesinin Kavramsal Çerçevesi]. Millî Folklor. 17 (132).</ref> Major reforms were led by Prince Beslan the Fat, who established unified legal proceedings, formalized new rituals, and introduced specific horse brands for noble families.^[37][33]

Beslan is traditionally credited with codifying the Kabardian social hierarchy by formalizing distinctions within the nobility (uorqi) and the peasantry. Modern researchers, however, note that social stratification had already developed prior to his reign; Beslan's authority served primarily to adjust, refine, and codify existing social arrangements rather than invent them instantaneously.^[38]

The judicial system in Kabardia evolved over several centuries. Following the decline of the forty-judge system originally established by Inal the Great, 16th-century legal reforms under Beslan restructured judicial authorities into local village arbitration courts for civil disputes and a central court under the prince for criminal and national matters.^[39]

According to the account of Shora Nogmov:^[40]

"Berslan, in continuing his rule over the Kabardian people and wishing to strengthen their prosperity and provide justice for all, established in every village a kheezja, or arbitration court, where all cases except criminal ones were heard. Complaints and disputes were examined by individuals elected annually by the inhabitants with the approval of the prince. Complaints against judges, criminal cases, and matters concerning the entire people were decided under the chairmanship of the prince in the he, or main court, located at the prince's residence. Berslan also introduced various fines for violations of the laws and rites he had established and attempted to suppress wrongdoing by depriving certain princes of their titles or exiling them. In addition, he introduced a special brand for the horses of himself and the uzden, still known as the Berslan brand. Horses found bearing this mark after theft were subject to severe punishment for the offender."

After Beslan and Civil War of 1530s

In 1533, the Nogais recaptured Astrakhan and deposed the pro Kabardian khan. This marked the beginning of intensified Nogai efforts to establish dominance in the Ciscaucasia. Following the capture of Astrakhan, the Nogais organized a major campaign against Kabardia. In the spring of 1535, a large Nogai force advanced into the Ciscaucasia. The first major engagement occurred at the confluence of the Malka and Terek rivers. The Nogais pushed the Kabardian forces back, compelling them to withdraw toward the area between the Baksan and Psygansu rivers. The Nogais advanced through the region and burned abandoned settlements Kabardian forces then conducted a series of counterattacks against dispersed Nogai detachments. The Nogais regrouped and moved toward the Psygansu River, confronting Kabardian defensive positions in the area between present day Aushiger and Kashkatau. After heavy fighting, Kabardian forces withdrew into mountainous terrain. Further engagements took place in the mountain gorges and forests, resulting in substantial casualties on both sides. Following the arrival of approximately 2,000 Abazins, Kabardian forces launched a counteroffensive. In a decisive battle near Mount Kashkatau, the Nogai army was defeated and retreated. Kabardian forces pursued the withdrawing enemy and captured prisoners. The conflict resulted in significant losses among the Kabardian nobility, including the youngest son of Yidar Kidirshoko.^[41]

In 1537/1538, a major internal conflict called the Battle of Kyzburun broke out, the conflict was fought between the coalition of Prince Yidar and opposing Kabardian princes, primarily Talostan Jankhot, supported by Abazin forces. The conflict emerged from a succession struggle following the fragmentation of authority among Circassian nobles. Yidar, with support from the Western Circassian principalities, was the main prince fighting in the conflict. The opposing Kabardian forces established a defensive position near Mount Kyzburun along the Baksan River and were reinforced by Abazin infantry. Both sides fielded large forces, and the battle was marked by intense fighting, preserved in Circassian oral tradition. Yidar's coalition ultimately secured victory. In the aftermath, Yidar was recognized as the Grand Prince of Kabardia, consolidating power and establishing the dominance of his lineage. The victory led to political realignment within Kabardia, including the decline of rival princely houses and the migration of certain groups. However, the outcome also contributed to prolonged internal tensions and rivalries, as Yidar's reliance on external allies affected perceptions of his legitimacy among Kabardian elites.^[42]

Crimean invasion (1545)

Era of Yidars

After Yidar died, Qeytuqo I Beslan came to power and ruled until the 1550s. After him, the Kabardian prince Temruqo Yidar started ruling Kabardia.^[45]

Most available sources are silent on Temruqo's early years,^[46] but he became the Grand Prince of Kabardia in the 1550s.^[47] His ascension faced immediate opposition from rival princes, notably Qanshao Jilakhstenqo, who allied with the Kumyks and persuaded Avar leader Khadan Utsmi to invade Kabardia.^[47] In response, Temruqo allied with Trans-Kuban leaders, including Lev Achba of the Abazins and Yelzheruqo Qanoqo of the Besleneys, who took supreme military command.^[48] Following failed negotiations, a fierce three-day battle near the Terek River resulted in Khadan Utsmi's death, causing chaos in his army; allied Kabardian forces routed the invaders, with only a third escaping.^[49]

Concurrently, Kabardia faced repeated aggression from the Crimean Khanate under Khan Devlet I Giray. Crimean hordes raided Kabardian territory in 1553, 1554, 1555, and 1556.^[50] Despite heavy losses, including two thousand supporting Russian troops in 1555, the Kabardians repeatedly repulsed Crimean forces, inflicting major casualties and forcing Devlet Giray to retreat without establishing a permanent foothold.^[50][51] In 1556, acting on orders from Tsar Ivan IV alongside Dmytro Vyshnevetsky's anti-Tatar campaigns, Kabardian princes Tazdrup and Dozibok captured the coastal strongholds of Temryuk and Taman, where Temruqo built a strategic fortress bearing his name.^[52][53]

Seeking long-term stability and protection against regional foes, Temruqo initiated diplomatic ties with Moscow. In July 1557, a Kabardian embassy under Qanqilich Qanoqo arrived in Moscow requesting Tsar Ivan IV's formal patronage and military assistance against the Shamkhalate.^[54] In response to Kabardian complaints of Kumyk raids, Russian voivode I. S. Cheremisinov launched a maritime expedition from Astrakhan in summer 1560, capturing and burning Tarki and forcing Shamkhal Buday I into the mountains.^[54][55][56] The alliance was sealed in August 1561 through the marriage of Ivan IV to Temruqo's daughter, Maria Temryukovna, elevating Temruqo's standing, centralizing his rule, and encouraging several Kabardian nobles, including his son Saltan, to convert to Orthodoxy while educating them in Moscow.^[54]

Throughout the 1560s, Temruqo and Russian troops conducted joint campaigns to neutralize internal rivals and counter external threats. In December 1562, a joint force under Temruqo and Russian commanders Grigory Pleshcheyev and Grigory Vrazhsky attacked the Qeytuqey princes, capturing three fortified towns (Mokhan, Engir, and Kavan) and imposing tribute on the region.^[57][58] Another expedition under Ivan Dashkov in 1565–1566 secured victories against rival claimants Shiapshoqo, Tazrit, and Manta.^[54] In 1567, Shamkhal Buday I and Ghazi ibn Urak of the Lesser Nogai Horde intervened on behalf of rival prince Pshiapshoqo Qeytuqo; Temruqo's forces defeated the coalition, killing Buday I and his brother, which severely curtailed Dagestani influence in Kabardia.^[59] During the 1569 Ottoman–Crimean expedition against Astrakhan, Kabardian cavalry actively harassed the retreating Ottoman forces, contributing significantly to the campaign's collapse.^[60]

Temruqo's reign culminated in a final clash with the Crimean Khanate during the Battle of Afips in July 1570.^[61] Facing an invading army led by Kalga Adil Giray, Temruqo rallied Kabardian and Adyghe forces at a fortification near the confluence of the Akhupa and Kuban rivers.^[53][61] During intense combat on July 30, Temruqo was pierced by an arrow and mortally wounded while resisting Crimean river-crossing attempts.^[62][63] The fortress was eventually overrun, and two of Temruqo's sons, Beberyuk and Mamstruk, were taken prisoner.^[61] Temruqo Yidar died from his injuries shortly thereafter in 1571, dealing a severe blow to the Yidar dynasty's dominance and leaving behind a legacy marked by political centralization, strategic Russian alignment, and enduring border conflicts.^[64]

After the death of Temruqo Yidar, he was succeeded by his brother, Qambolet, as the Grand Prince of Kabardia.^[61] The Muscovites played no role in his election, as he was chosen solely by the Kabardian princes. Due to the presence of Crimean forces nearby and the loss of Temruqo, Qambolet initially maintained traditional Kabardian–Crimean relations rather than fully aligning with Muscovy.^[65]

In 1576, the forces of the Lesser Nogai bey Ghazi ibn Urak invaded Lesser Kabardia, but were defeated by the Kabardians led by the Yidars under Qambolet and the Talostaneys under Sholokh Tepsaruqo. Although Nogai forces initially inflicted heavy losses, they were ambushed and defeated during their retreat. Ghazi ibn Urak, two of his brothers, several of his sons, and commanders Iman-Girey and Chebar-Murza were killed by Kabardian forces. Pshiapshoqo Qeytuqo fought on the side of the Nogais and the Crimean Khanate, pursuing a pro-Crimean policy.^[65][66]

In the spring of 1578, an embassy headed by Qambolet arrived in Moscow. In accordance with the "shertnaya gramota", Qambolet pledged service to Tsar Ivan IV and his son, Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich. Qambolet's son, Qarashay, accompanied the embassy and remained in Moscow, where he was baptized as Boris Kambulatovich Cherkassky. Qambolet received a "large charter" bearing the "30-lot seal" of Ivan IV. Simultaneously, Luka Novosiltsev was sent to Kabardia with troops, firepower, and carpenters to construct a Russian fortress. During this period, Crimean Kalga Adil Giray, en route to Shirvan, requested passage across the Sunzha River, which was guarded by the Terek Cossacks. The Crimean army was later defeated in Iran, and during its retreat, Novosiltsev's forces attacked its remnants and captured horses, while the kalga himself was captured in Iran. Qambolet's original charter has not survived; as noted by S. A. Belokurov, "the pillar is dilapidated and fallen apart." Information about it survives through a document issued by Ivan IV to Prince Mamstruk Temryukovich, which references the 1578 "shert" and Novosiltsev's mission, emphasizing that the charter was granted with a golden seal to Prince Qambolet of Kabardia for the entire "Cherkasy land".^[67]

The Terek city built by Novosiltsev was short-lived, as its construction provoked protests from the Crimean Khanate. In 1579, under Crimean pressure and due to Russian difficulties during the Livonian War, the fort was dismantled. However, in 1588, a new fort garrisoned by Streltsy and equipped with artillery was established at the mouth of the Terek River under commander A. I. Khvorostinin, maintaining ongoing diplomatic ties between Russia and Kabardia.^[67]

In January 1588, Qambolet's son, Qudenet Qambolet, and Temruqo's son, Mamstruk, arrived in Moscow requesting protection from the Crimeans, Sholokh Tepsaruqo, and the Qeytuqo family. Both envoys swore allegiance to the Russian state on July 25 during the reign of Tsar Fyodor I Ivanovich. In response, the tsar accepted them under his royal patronage, promised protection, and ordered the construction of a fortified settlement. The envoys returned to Kabardia in August with a charter confirming relations between Russia and Kabardia, in which Qambolet and Qudenet played a central role, while the Qeytuqos, Talostans, and Jilakhstans remained aligned with the Crimean Khanate and the Shamkhalate of Tarki.^[68]

Qambolet Yidar died in 1589,^[68] triggering a renewed power struggle within Kabardia between the Qeytuqeys allied with Yidareys against the principality of Talostaney.^[69]

Era of Sholokh and Mudar

In November 1589, a coalition of the Qeytuqo and Yidarey factions launched a coordinated military campaign against the Principality of Talostaney owned by Sholokh Tepsaruqo, because of his political rivalry with Russia.^[70] They were supported by approximately 750 Russian Cossack troops sent from the Terek voivodeship under the command of Grigory Poltev. The operation aimed to eliminate Talostaney resistance and prevent outside influence from Ottoman, Crimean, and Kumyk-aligned forces. The allied forces held a significant numerical advantage, fielding around 4,500 cavalry compared to Talostaney's estimated 2,000 horsemen. The campaign was conducted rapidly and with heavy destruction. Contemporary accounts describe the burning or capture of more than 30 out of roughly 40 settlements in Talostaney territory. Sholokh Tepsaruqo's forces were decisively defeated. He was forced to submit, and compelled to recognize Jansokh Qeytuqo's authority as the Grand Prince of Kabardia. he handed over hostages, including his son and twenty other nobles.^[71][72]

In 1596, Kabardian forces led by princes Sholokh and Aytech advanced through the Daryal Gorge, seizing fortified settlements (kabaki) belonging to the Vainakh noble Sultan-Murza. After establishing control in the highlands, they moved southward into Kartli's mountainous borderlands, specifically targeting the Sioni and Ksani regions.^{[73][74][75][76][77]}

In May 1597, King Alexander II of Kartli reported the incursion to Russian envoys Kuzma Savin and Andrei Polukhanov. According to their account, Alexander informed them that "Solokh, the Kabardian ruler, and Aitek-Murza" had invaded the "land of Soni," killing many and taking numerous captives. The term "ruler" (gosudar) used by Alexander in reference to Solokh suggests a recognition, possibly tactical, of his authority among the Kabardians.^{[73][74][75][76][77]}

Civil War of 1639–1641 and era of Alejuqo

Following the death of Sholokh Tepsaruqo in 1616, the title of Grand Prince of Kabardia passed to Qudenet Qambolet, a representative of the Yidar lineage. Although Qudenet received a royal charter and formal recognition from the other Kabardian princes, domestic political instability immediately flared. Alejuqo Shojenuqo, nephew of Qaziy Pshiapshoqo and leader of Greater Kabardia, launched a campaign against Talostaney backed by 3,000 Crimean troops. Following the military defeat of the Talostaneys, their leader, Qarashey Sholokh, and his two brothers attempted to seek refuge in Jilakhstaney, but were killed by princes Mudar Alkhas and Akhlo Aytech. Nevertheless, this did not prevent the Qaziy and Talostan families from subsequently forming a military alliance against the Yidars and their patron, the Tsar of Muscovy. The tsarist government secured pledges of loyalty from the Talostans and Qeytuqos, along with the delivery of hostages, only in late 1622, following a joint campaign into their lands by the Yidars and a Russian detachment from Terki.^[81]

In 1624, after Qudenet's death, the tsarist administration issued a charter granting the princely title to his brother, Pshimakho. However, Pshimakho's claim to the status of Grand Prince was rejected within Kabardia. Despite their sharp internal differences, the Talostans and Qeytuqos united for a long period in opposition to the Yidars, whose policies aimed to consolidate their own status at the expense of Kabardia's de facto independence. Yet, the Yidars had little alternative: they had to either accept the permanent loss of their domestic political influence or continue leveraging their Moscow connections as a powerful instrument against their rivals. Joint military operations by the Yidars and their Russian allies continued through 1626 and 1630. In 1631, after the death of Qudenet, the third consecutive representative of the Yidar family to hold power, Narchu Yelbezduqo received a royal charter to rule. As with his predecessor, however, his rights to the title and status of Grand Prince were not recognized in Kabardia, precipitating a deep crisis of supreme political authority across the realm.^[82]

The policies of the Yidars and their Russian backers ultimately stripped the title of Grand Prince of any practical significance. Lacking domestic recognition and denied the legitimate right of seniority in the eyes of the co-ruling princes, the last Yidar Grand Princes were powerless to halt political fragmentation or the secessions of Talostaney and Jilakhstaney. Meanwhile, Qaziy Kabardia, led by cousins Alejuqo Shojenuqo and Hatokhshoqo Qaziy, emerged as the most powerful feudal domain. Its leaders openly sought hegemony over the country, and the Yidars were unable to neutralize them through foreign diplomatic backing alone. Furthermore, the Yidars' own holdings became embroiled in intense rivalries between different branches of their princely house. The heirs of Sanjalay Kanklychev (who died in 1625) were backed by the Qeytuqos, with whom they intermarried. Sholokh Sanjalay, and after his death in 1636, his brother Mutsal Sanjalay, married Alejuqo's sister in accordance with levirate custom. Conversely, the Qambolet branch, which was demographically and militarily weaker, was supported by the Talostans and Jilakhstans. Mutsal Sanjalay's allies in Kabardia aligned with the Crimean Khanate and the Lesser Nogai Horde, both of which were openly hostile to Russia.^[83]

In 1635, an attack by Aidemir-murza, the future Shamkhal of the Shamkhalate of Tarki, resulted in the death of Kilish Sauslan, the last representative of his branch of the Yidar family. This triggered an immediate dispute over the inheritance of his feudal estate, which comprised eleven villages capable of mobilizing 250 noble horsemen and uorkis.^[84] The primary contenders were two distinct Yidar lineages: the descendants of Zhelegot (led by brothers Budach, Sholokh, and Alejuqo Sanjalay), who ruled a small, Moscow-vassal principality along the lower Terek River near the fortress of Terki; and the lineage of Qambolet, led by Chalimat Qudenet, successor to Qambolet Yidar and head of the Qambolet patronymic.^[84]

The Sanjalay brothers possessed powerful domestic allies, as Mutsal was married to the sister of Alejuqo Shojenuqo, co-ruler of Qaziy Kabardia. As the largest fiefdom in Kabardia, Qaziy Kabardia encompassed around 50 villages and could field over 1,000 armored cavalrymen alongside more than 2,000 infantry. Alejuqo and his cousin, Hatokhshoqo Qaziy, maintained close political ties with the Crimean Khanate and the Lesser Nogai Horde, pursuing an independent policy free from Moscow's control. By contrast, Chalimat Qudenet was the weakest of the Yidar princes, with a personal domain consisting of just four villages capable of fielding 35 uorkis.^[84] However, Chalimat enjoyed influential patrons in Moscow alongside powerful relatives across the North Caucasus. His brother, Yakov Kudinetovich Cherkassky, and his cousin, Ivan Borisovich Cherkassky (a maternal cousin of Tsar Michael Fedorovich's mother), occupied prominent positions at the Russian court. Chalimat was also the son of Babasupkh Alkhas, sister to Mudar Alkhas, the Supreme Prince of Jilakhstaney, making him a relative of Aidemir-Shamkhal, ruler of the Shamkhalate of Tarki.^[84]

In April 1639, Alejuqo Shojenuqo and Hatokhshoqo Qaziy destroyed the possessions of Chalimat Qudenet and his ally Narchu Yelbezduqo, capturing Chalimat's mother and two sisters. Budach and Mutsal Sanjalay were accused of treason for disobedience and secret correspondence with Safavid Iran, leading to their exile from the Terek River into interior Russia; however, their younger brother, Alejuqo Sanjalay, escaped to Kabardia and assumed control over the disputed Yidarey lands. The leaders of Qaziy Kabardia appealed directly to Tsar Michael I, citing the right of Dmitry Mamstryukovich Cherkassky to dispose of the disputed Yidarey estates, and threatened to defect to the Crimean Khanate if Moscow provided unconditional support to Chalimat. The Russian court rejected this tone, and in September 1640, sent a stern reply asserting its authority as supreme overlord and formally accusing Alejuqo and Hatokhshoqo of disloyalty.^[85]

In the spring of 1641, Chalimat's mother and sisters were rescued without a major engagement when approximately 3,000 Big Nogai warriors under Prince Dmitry Gochakov were dispatched to Kabardia. However, freeing the captives and transferring Chalimat's subjects to Talostaney failed to resolve the core political dispute.^[85] Escalating the feud, the anti-Russian faction turned to hired assassins. As Babasupkh Alkhas reported, Princess Zhelegosha and Alejuqo Sanjalay collaborated with Qaziy Kabardia and Lesser Nogai allies to hire a Tatar assassin named Chinkireik, who was sent to kill her son Kelmametek (Chalimat).^[85] In May 1641, Alejuqo and Hatokhshoqo launched a direct assault on Mudar Alkhas's holdings, resulting in Mudar Alkhas's assassination. On May 29, 1641, Qaziy forces and their Lesser Nogai allies invaded Chalimat's lands, inflicting roughly 30 casualties among the Yidar nobility, capturing over 270 prisoners, and seizing extensive livestock.^[86]

These events pushed the conflict into a general war. A funeral feast for Mudar Alkhas initiated a broad mobilization led by Chalimat Qudenet and Aidemir-Shamkhal, assembling a coalition estimated at 5,200 men. This force included 1,200 Big Nogai warriors under Saltanash Aksakov and Khoroshai Chubarmametev, 1,100 Circassians (including 300 from Jilakhstaney), 50 Bragun Kumyks, 2,350 troops from the Shamkhalate of Tarki, and a Russian contingent from Terki consisting of over 300 to 500 service men, Cossacks, and streltsy under Artemy Shishmarev.^[87] On the opposing side, the combined army of Qaziy Kabardia and the Lesser Nogai Horde numbered slightly over 2,000 men. The strike force consisted of 1,350 heavy armored Circassian cavalry led by Alejuqo Shojenuqo, Hatokhshoqo Qaziy, and Alejuqo Sanjalay, alongside 800–900 Nogai horsemen under Soltan-murza Kasayev.^[88]

The conflict culminated in the Battle of Malka on July 12, 1641. The coalition army advanced along the left bank of the Malka River toward Pyatigorye, where Chalimat's vanguard under Aidemir-Shamkhal quickly overran Lesser Nogai outposts in the It-Almas tract and dispersed to capture sprawling livestock herds. Prince Alejuqo Shojenuqo executed a feigned retreat tactic, instructing his Nogai vanguard to fall back and lure the coalition deeper into the terrain. As the coalition army broke formation to plunder, Alejuqo's hidden armored cavalry emerged in three heavy columns from a mountain gorge, striking the coalition's rear and encircling the three separated enemy groups.^[89][90] The engagement turned into a complete rout. In a desperate attempt to break the encirclement, horsemen and foot soldiers leaped into a steep, deep ravine along the Balk (Malka) River, where most were killed or drowned. Virtually all primary coalition commanders perished, including Chalimat Cherkassky, Aidemir-Shamkhal, Yeldar Aybak, and the Strelets commander Artemy Shishmarev. Out of more than 300–500 Russian servicemen deployed from Terki, only 22 survived. Several hundred coalition troops were captured, including princes Tatarkhan Aslan and Akhle Aytech.^[91][92]

The victory at Malka prevented Dagestani hegemony over the North Caucasus and preserved Kabardian autonomy. However, fearing a large-scale Muscovite punitive expedition following the destruction of the Russian garrison, Alejuqo and Hatokhshoqo made the strategic decision at the end of 1641 to temporarily resettle Qaziy Kabardia across the Kuban River under Crimean protection.^[92] Realizing that the vacant Beshtaugorye lands were attracting warlike Kalmyk tribes and threatening the isolation of Terki, the Russian government sought to normalize relations. In 1642, Moscow recalled Alejuqo's exiled brother-in-law, Mutsal Cherkassky, restored his titles, and dispatched him to negotiate the return of the Kabardians. Following successful negotiations, Alejuqo took an oath of allegiance to Russia on the Koran in his own name and on behalf of his allied murzas and uzdens. In return, Alejuqo was assigned the largest royal stipend in the Caucasus, guaranteed immunity for trade and diplomatic convoys, and safely returned his people from the Kuban region to Beshtaugorye, establishing Qaziy dominance over Kabardia while restoring formal diplomatic ties with Moscow.^[92]

Crimean and Kalmyk invasions

In the 17th century, the Northeastern Caucasus became one of the main theaters of military operations for the Crimean Khanate. Numerous attempts by Crimean Tatar forces to penetrate Transcaucasia were carried out along the North Caucasian route, which passed through Circassia and Kabardia. Such campaigns were undertaken in 1606, 1608, 1616, and 1635. For example, in 1607 the Crimean Khan Ğazı II Giray spent the entire winter in Circassia, attempting to draw it into the political orbit of the Ottoman Empire or win it over to his side. These expeditions were typically accompanied by heavy fighting, the destruction of settlements, and the capture of thousands of prisoners and livestock, making this period particularly difficult for the Circassians. In many cases, Circassia was forced to resist the superior forces of the Crimean Khanate, which was often supported by the Ottoman Empire. According to R. Trakho, Moscow's interest in the Caucasus declined after the Time of Troubles, and before the reign of Peter the Great there were almost no significant political or military actions between Russia and the Circassian lands. In 1616, the Ottoman Sultan decided to launch a new campaign through the North Caucasus toward Iranian territory. Crimean Tatar forces moved first through Kabardia, and the arrival of Janibek Giray prompted the Great Nogai Horde to join the campaign. Around 3,000 Crimeans and 9,000 Nogais from the Ishterekov ulus took part. Further campaigns against Kabardia were undertaken in 1619, 1629, and 1631. Their main goal was to draw the Kabardians to the Crimean side, and these expeditions were accompanied by plundering and devastation of the population and lands. At the same time, the Crimean and Ottoman authorities accused their supporters among the Kabardian feudal elite of treason and of defecting to the side of the Moscow tsar, something that often occurred due to difficult political circumstances. Even after the Ottoman defeat in its struggle with Iran in 1639, the devastating raids of the Crimean khans on Circassia and Kabardia continued. In 1640, a Crimean army of about 14,000 men carried out a winter campaign against the lands of the Circassian prince Adzhikumuk, but he managed to successfully repel the invaders.^[93]

In early 1644, after a skirmish with the Kalmyks, the Besleneys informed the Kabardians and Nogais that a Kalmyk army was advancing toward them. In response, the combined forces of the Kabardian princes, Nogai murzas, and some Abaza began fortifying their settlements and preparing for defense.^[94] According to Evliya Çelebi and Mustafa Naima, the allied force numbered about ten thousand men.^[95][96] Around mid-January 1644, Kalmyk detachments assaulted the fortified positions of the allied forces. The battle quickly became fierce, and the initial Kalmyk attack succeeded, inflicting heavy casualties on the coalition.^[94]

As noted by Evliya Çelebi, when the Kalmyk warriors encountered the Circassians and Nogais, they launched a sudden assault with cries of "Ho!", causing the Nogai and Kabardian forces to retreat. The Kalmyks pursued them deep into the mountains, where a second battle took place.^[96]

Historian Begeulov R. M., citing a report by the Italian Catholic missionary A. Lamberti describing a battle between 1630 and 1650 in which Svans and Karachays defeated an invasion by "unknown people," and Circassian oral traditions claiming that around 2,000 warriors from various mountain tribes joined the fight, suggests that Karachays, Balkars, and Svans likely assisted the coalition during this second battle.^[94] When the Kalmyks advanced into the mountains, allied marksmen armed with rifles, hidden in ambush, suddenly attacked them with volleys of gunfire. Evliya Çelebi described this ambush as resembling a "seven-headed dragon." The Kalmyk army was decisively defeated.^[20] According to a Russian document from 1644, the Kalmyks lost most of their leaders and elite command staff and suffered heavy losses. Evliya Çelebi claimed that about 20,000 Kalmyks were killed, another 20,000 captured, and more than 67,000 horses seized by the victors.^[96] Russian sources, however, report that only 1,500 to 2,000 of the Kalmyk army survived.^[94]

In 1671, the Crimean Khan again invaded Kabardia with a large force and remained in the region for more than eight months. The Kabardians, unwilling to submit yet unable to openly confront the Tatars, abandoned their homes and retreated to the mountains and fortified places, taking their possessions with them. The Crimean forces were left with only about fifty hostages and were eventually forced to withdraw after causing widespread devastation.^[93]

In 1699, the Crimean prince and kalga, Shahbaz Giray, was murdered in Circassia at the house of the Besleney prince Temir-Bulat. Reports suggested that he had been poisoned, although another version claimed that he was killed by rebellious Circassians. Suspicion also fell on Khan Davlet Giray, who had earlier used Circassian forces to defeat his rivals. However, the unrest that followed did not subside. The brother of the murdered kalga, Kaplan Giray, under the pretext of avenging Shahbaz Giray, carried out several devastating raids against the mountain regions. Some accounts also suggest that the murder may have been organized by Shahbaz Giray's own brothers.^[97]

Battle of Kanzhal

The killing of a member of the Giray dynasty prompted retaliation from the Crimean Khanate. In 1700 and again in 1701, Crimean forces under the command of Shahbaz Giray's brother Kaplan Giray launched major punitive expeditions into Circassian territory, ostensibly to avenge the murder but also to plunder and capture tribute and slaves. Fearing reprisals and blood vengeance, those held responsible for Shahbaz Giray's death fled from Besleney to Kabardia.^[98][97] Following pressure and retaliatory attacks from the Crimean Khanate, several hundred Besleney families, together with their leaders, sought refuge in Kabardia, where they were granted protection by the Kabardian prince Qeytuqo Jambulat.^[97]

In 1708, Sultan Ahmed III supported the Crimean Khan Qaplan I Giray and authorized a punitive campaign against the Kabardians. Ambassador P. A. Tolstoy reported from Constantinople that the Khan had received a decree from the Ottoman Porte ordering him to lead an army of thirty to forty thousand Tatars to devastate Circassia and burn its settlements.^[99] Qaplan I Giray began the campaign in the spring of 1708 and reached Kabardia during the harvest season. Rather than advancing deep into the country, he moved toward the region near Mount Elbrus and established his camp along the upper reaches of the Malka River in the area known as Lower Kanzhal. The site had been used by earlier Crimean khans and offered abundant pasture, clean water, and natural protection from the surrounding terrain. Behind the camp lay the Malka River and the nearby Babukin ford, the only easy crossing in the area.^[100] The Kabardian princes, led by the supreme prince Kurghoqo Hatokhshoqo, decided to resist the invasion. A general mobilization was proclaimed, and according to contemporary reports even boys as young as fourteen were called to arms.^[101] Kabardia was able to field between 7,000 and 30,000 men, though historians generally estimate the effective force at about 10,000 to 15,000 warriors, many of them noble cavalry.^[102] Recognizing that a direct confrontation with the larger Crimean army would be disastrous, the Kabardians attempted negotiations while secretly preparing for resistance. Kurghoqo Hatokhshoqo offered to reduce the tribute, but the Khan rejected the proposal and demanded no fewer than three thousand captives. The Kabardians deliberately prolonged negotiations for nearly three weeks in order to prepare their defenses.^[100] The first stage of the fighting occurred in the Tyzyl Gorge, where Kabardian detachments lured part of the Crimean force into a narrow mountain pass through a feigned retreat. Once the enemy cavalry entered the gorge, the Kabardians attacked from the slopes, firing arrows, rolling stones and tree trunks onto the trapped troops, and striking the immobilized cavalry. A later record preserved in the Russian Board of Foreign Affairs described how Crimean and Kuban forces were drawn into the mountains and suffered a crushing defeat, with many dying in battle or from hunger.^[103] Fighting continued for several weeks through repeated engagements and guerrilla-style attacks. According to the Kabardian commander Pshi Tatarkhan Bechmirza, the clashes with the Crimeans lasted between one and two months.^[100]

The decisive battle occurred in September 1708 when the Kabardians launched a coordinated night attack on the Crimean camp near the Malka River. Kabardian scouts silently eliminated enemy pickets and surrounded the camp before the assault began.^[100] According to several accounts, including those recorded by travelers such as Abi de la Motraye, a diversion was created by driving hundreds of horses with burning bundles tied to their tails into the camp, causing panic among the Crimean cavalry. As the frightened animals ran through the camp, confusion spread among the soldiers, who believed disaster had struck them unexpectedly.^[104]

Taking advantage of the chaos, Kabardian forces attacked from several directions and overwhelmed the disorganized Crimean troops. The Crimean army was routed, and Khan Qaplan I Giray himself was wounded and forced to flee the battlefield.^[104]

According to Kabardian accounts, around 11,000 Crimean soldiers were killed, while many others were captured or scattered in the mountains. The Kabardians captured artillery, including fourteen cannons and five mortars, along with thousands of horses and large quantities of weapons and supplies.^[104] The defeat was severe. Kalmyk Khan Ayuka later confirmed to a Russian envoy that many of the Khan's leading murzas had been killed and that the Khan's own son had been taken prisoner. Russian reports noted that only about half of the Crimean seymens survived the campaign.^[100] It reportedly took the Kabardians several days to bury the dead and divide the captured spoils. News of the defeat reached Constantinople by the end of October 1708, confirming the failure of the Crimean campaign against Kabardia.^[100]

Civil War of 1720–1736

As a successor state to the Golden Horde, the Crimean Khanate claimed sovereignty over Circassia.^[105][106] This political relationship was characterized primarily by the obligation of Circassian princes to pay tribute to the Crimean Khan, predominantly in the form of slaves. This tribute was demanded upon the ascension of a new Khan to the throne or levied as fines for crimes committed by Circassian subjects.^[107][106] When Circassian leaders refused to deliver the required number of captives, the Crimean leadership launched punitive military expeditions to enforce payment. These raids were justified by labelling the Circassians as "infidels". This justification became complicated from the 16th century onward as the Circassians increasingly converted to Islam; however, Crimean Khans often ignored these conversions and rejected negotiations with Circassian envoys who pleaded over their shared religion.^[106]

Despite the presence of Islam, there was debate over whether the region was Dar al-Harb (the Abode of War), where slaves could be taken, or Dar al-Islam (the Abode of Islam), which would prevent enslavement.^[108] Despite some legal rulings (kanunname) suggesting Sharia should apply to certain tribes (which would protect them), the Ottoman state supported the Crimean Khan in enslaving Circassians, treating the region effectively as a source of slaves regardless of religious affiliation. It was not possible to determine whether the Circassians entering the Ottoman market were from Dar al-Harb or not, as both allied Muslim Circassians and non-Muslim Circassians were raided by the Khanate.^[109] The Circassians were described as "neither Christians nor Muslims" by a courtier of the Crimean Khan. Some Ottoman chroniclers mention that the Circassians fought against the Crimean Khanate because they could not stand the "Tatar tyranny and oppression" (Turkish: zülm ü cevre).^[106] In some cases, the Circassians pleaded with the Ottoman sultan directly, arguing that they were fellow Muslims, thus it was therefore "against the sharia to turn them into slaves". The Sultan withdrew permission for the Khan's campaigns based on this argument, although the Khan proceeded regardless.^[106]

In 1720, the Crimean-Circassian war of 1720-1726 started, complicated by the civil strife between the Anti-Crimean Kashkatau Party, which Aslanbech was a part of, and the Pro-Crimean Bakhsan Party.^{[110][111][112][113][114]}

In 1720, Saadet IV Giray (as revenge for the Kabardian invasion of Kuban and Chechnya)^[115] invaded Kabardia with 40,000 troops, demanding allegiance to the Ottoman Empire and Crimean Khanate, 4,000 jasyrs, and restitution for past losses. Pro-Crimean princes capitulated, while Kashkatau party leaders fortified the Cherek Fortress.^[116] A khasa was convened, attended by princes, Tlekotlesh, and representatives of the peasants. They discussed the current situation and the dispatch of an embassy to St. Petersburg. The Misosts' supporters prevailed at the meeting; reasonable proposals were rejected, and it was decided to accept the Crimean terms and pay a shameful tribute of 1,000 yasyrs "for the dishonor" of Kaplan Giray, "and if he, the khan, were to march on Kabardia, they would give nothing." They sent ambassadors with this proposal to the khan, who executed them and moved his troops across the Kuban. Those who disagreed with Yislam Misost's decision united around Aslanbech and his supporters and retreated into the mountains.^[115]

The Qeytuqo and Bechmirza families, representatives of the Jambot clan, according to V.N. Sokurov, left with their people for Kashkatau. In other words, Aslanbech returned to his former possessions and built the Cherek town.^[117]

The Crimean Khan sent a thousand well-armed seimen soldiers to Kabardia under the command of Salih Giray, the Sultan. By mid-June 1720, the Crimeans were encamped on Kyzburun. Salih Giray accepted the oath of allegiance to Crimea from the Misost and Hatokhshoqo families, in confirmation of which he demanded hostages and the payment of tribute in slaves.^[118]

Saadet Giray IV presented the following demands to the Jambot clan:

• Severance of relations with Russia
• Acceptance of Crimean citizenship and payment of a tribute of one yasyr from each household
• Relocation to the Kuban region

The first three points were mandatory; if they were not fulfilled, the khan threatened to destroy their homes, burn them down, and execute everyone. However, the Kabardians categorically refused all demands. Aslanbech's group declared that the Kabardian princes had never been under Crimean rule, but had long been allies of Russia and served it faithfully. After this, Salih Giray Sultan gave the order to attack Kashkhatau. On June 24, 1720, the Crimean detachment stood at Tatartu.^[118]

At the end of June, the Crimeans attacked the lands of the Kabardians. They destroyed villages, trampled crops and "burned the hay in stacks". The fortress "Chereksky Gorodok", built in a relatively short time in the Kashkatau tract, was besieged. Kabardians also took part in the attack and siege; Pshipshoqo Hatokhshoqo led 1,000 horsemen against Aslanbech. The besieged found themselves in a difficult situation. While there is no definitive information about losses in manpower, it is known that the Crimeans stole about three hundred horses, a thousand cows, and five thousand sheep. Soon, serious disagreements arose between the Jambots. The Bechmirzas proposed reconciliation with the khan, the Misosts, and the Hatokhshoqos. Aslanbech categorically objected, but the majority sided with the Bechmirzas. Then Qeytuqo declared that he himself would immediately go to the Russian Tsar for help. On the way to Terek, Aslanbech managed to conclude a military-political alliance with the Shamkhal of Tarki, Adil Giray, and the Kalmyk Khan, Ayuka Khan, about which he notified the Terek commandant, V.I. Zaozersky. On July 4, 1720, upon arrival in Terek, Qeytuqo submitted a letter to the commandant in which he stated:

"The Kabardians have all joined forces and driven me out of Kabardia, and if your grace writes about me, do not trust them and do not separate me from the great sovereign."

The Bechmirzas soon revised their decision: they sent for Aslanbech and brought him back. By mutual consent, at the end of July 1720, Prince Sultanaliy, Aslanbech's maternal brother, was sent to St. Petersburg to see the tsar. Sultanaliy's departure soon became known in the enemy camp. A visit by the khan's envoy, Agha Ismail, to the Cherek town followed. He was primarily interested in the reason for sending an ambassador to the tsar. The answer was straightforward: for help. An argument ensued, and ultimately Agha Ismail's diplomatic mission failed.^[118]

Soon the Crimeans launched another attack, prompting the Jambots to appeal to the Russian government to expedite military assistance. The princes' message, as well as the testimony of Kabardian ambassadors taken before the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, detailed the disasters and devastation brought by the Crimean Khan and urgently requested the construction of a Russian fortress in the Beshtamak tract of Kabardia. Informing the government of the impending danger, the princes wrote:

"If this winter there is no help or helping hand for us, then we report that we will not be yours, for our strength is gone against such enemies... And if, by the permission of your royal majesty, Kabardia and the Kabardian peoples are of no use to you and you are a great sovereign, please inform us and we will defend ourselves as best we can"

The siege of the Cherek town dragged on. Ultimately, all efforts by the Crimeans and the noble militia of the Misosts and Hatokhshoqos to capture the fortress proved futile. In December 1720, the khan and his army retreated from that town to the Kuban. Having established his camp there, Saadet Giray began sending detachments throughout Kabardia to collect tribute. As a Russian source states: "The best wealth was cattle, but the Crimeans robbed them all of it."^[118]

The behavior of the khan's troops provoked acute discontent among the country's population. Archival sources report that in November 1720, Shirin Bey, together with Pshiapshoqo Hatokhshoqo, drove "500 cows" and several thousand sheep confiscated from the population to feed the Crimean Khan. Informed of this promptly, the nobles of Aslanbech launched a surprise attack, routing them and taking back the livestock, which served as a pretext for intensifying military action. The Crimeans and the nobles of the Misosts and Hatokhshoqos again stormed the fortress without success. Moreover, during the attack, Pshipshoqo along with 15 Crimean and Kabardian nobles were killed, and 100 were wounded. The noble Crimean Tatar Mubarek Shirin Bey, who was higher in rank than a murza, was captured by the besieged forces, seriously wounded, and died inside the fortress.^[118]

In early December 1720, an envoy from the Kalmyk Khan Ayuka arrived in Kabardia. In accordance with a secret order he received from A.P. Volynsky, he gathered information on the country's internal political situation. The Kalmyk envoy first visited Kyzburun, the headquarters of Hatokhshoqo Misost. Here he met with the Crimean sultans Salih Giray and Abaz Giray. The latter declared that they were still at war with Qeytuqo, did not want peace, and urged him to capture Prince Aslanbech by deception and give him to them, promising 30 slaves and 30 suits of armor as a reward. The envoy agreed "for appearance's sake" and told Aslanbech everything. The conspiracy hatched against Qeytuqo culminated in a major clash on the Nalchik River in January 1721.^[119]

Over 2,000 warriors participated in the battle on the side of the Jambots. Salih Giray's detachment consisted of approximately 1,000 horsemen, while Yislambech Misost fielded 700 nobles. During the battle, most of the Kabardian nobles suddenly defected to Aslanbech Qeytuqo's side. As a result, the Crimean troops were routed and fled from Greater Kabardia. At the site of the battle alone, the Crimeans left 360 dead. Retreating, the Crimean detachments and the Misost nobles decided to fortify themselves in the Qudenet villages on the Chegem. However, the local population did not allow the Crimeans and their Kabardian princes into their homes and drove them away.

From 1722 to 1724, conflicts continued. The Bechmirzas and Qeytuqos remained besieged in the Kashkatau area, defending themselves entirely with their own resources. In 1724, Aslanbech Qeytuqo asked for military aid from Peter I. After receiving no answer to his request, he started to strengthen his ties with the new Crimean khan, Mengli II Giray. At this point, Peter the Great shifted his favor toward the Bakhsan faction, which caused the Kashkatau party to ally with the Crimeans, effectively leading both parties to swap their international allegiances.^[120]

Following this change in Crimean leadership under Meñli II Giray, Aslanbech Qeytuqo sought a rapprochement with Bakhchisarai. A political realignment followed, and alliances were reinforced through marriage between the Qeytuqey family and the Crimean ruling house. The new khan appointed Bakhty-Girey as serasker in Kuban, who in turn negotiated an agreement with Aslanbech for the seizure of supreme authority in Kabardia and its incorporation under Ottoman influence.^[121]

These plans were ultimately disrupted. The Kabardian statesman Jabagh Qazanoqo played a key diplomatic role in maintaining peace and restoring relations with Russia. Under his influence, Yislambech Misost convened a khasa (council), which resolved to send an embassy to Peter the Great. The emperor received the delegation, relations were restored, and military assistance was again promised.^[121]

In April 1725, despite these diplomatic turns, the Bakhsan leaders Yislambech Misost and other Hatokhshoqo princes ultimately capitulated and surrendered to Aslanbech at the Pshiqo encampment. The Kashkatau faction achieved a temporary victory over the Russian-supported Bakhsan party.^[122]

Following the defeat of the Bakhsan party in April 1725, the political situation in Greater Kabardia fell into disorder. For the first time in decades, Kabardia was forced to pay regular tribute to the Crimean Khanate, while Crimean troops remained stationed in Kabardian territory. Although Prince Aslanbech Qeytuqo had achieved victory over his rivals, his position soon became unstable. Qeytuqey's dependence on Crimean military support damaged his reputation among the Kabardian nobility. Before 1724, he had been known as a strong defender of Kabardian independence and an opponent of Crimean influence. His later cooperation with the Crimean Khanate caused many nobles to turn against him. The Bechmirzas, who had previously supported the Kashkatau coalition, abandoned Aslanbech and joined the remaining leaders of the defeated Bakhsan faction, creating a rare alliance between former rivals.^[123]

Without the support of the Kabardian princes, Aslanbech Qeytuqo quickly lost his authority. Hoping to preserve his position, he requested a redistribution of lands and subjects from the ruling princes, but his request was rejected. Isolated politically and left without allies, Aslanbech fled Kabardia together with his brother and son, seeking refuge in the Crimean Khanate.^[123]

After his exile, Aslanbech turned to the Kuban sultan Bakhti Giray for help, swore allegiance to him, and gave his daughter in marriage. Bakhti Giray, relying on the Crimean Khan's power, ravaged Greater Kabardia and began forcing the Kabardian princes to submit to his authority, demanding their resettlement to Kuban. In 1729, during another campaign against Kabardia, the Kuban serasker Bakhti Giray was killed in battle together with his brother Murad Sultan.^[124]

In 1730, the Ottoman Sultan removed the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray from power and reinstated Qaplan I Giray. His rival for the Khan's throne, Salih Giray, fled to his father-in-law, Prince Yislambech Misost. He took with him 2,000 Nogai families, approximately 35,000-40,000 people. Qaplan Giray, in turn, recognized Aslanbech Qeytuqo as the sole claimant to the throne of Kabardia, who in turn received a 19,000-strong army from the Khan. Aslanbech, in turn, swore allegiance to the Khan and promised to bring the entire region into submission.^[124]

In the summer of 1731, Crimean troops led by Arslan Giray and Aslanbech approached the borders of Kabardia. They demanded a ransom "for the blood" of the two sultans (Bakhti and Murad), at the rate of one yasyr from each household. The Vali of Kabardia, Yislambech Misost, frightened by the real threat of invasion by Crimean troops led by his rival Aslanbech Qeytuqo, expressed his willingness to recognize Russia's protection over Kabardia and convened a khasa to discuss the matter. The deputies unanimously agreed to swear allegiance to Russia to the new empress. In accordance with the decision of the imperial court, the commandant of the Holy Cross fortress, General D. F. Yeropkin, advanced Russian troops to the borders of Kabardia. The Crimeans began a retreat, eventually being defeated by the combined forces of Salih Giray's Kabardians and Nogais.^[124]

In 1732, the senior prince-vali of Kabardia, Yislambech Misost, died. The Kabardian princes gathered for a council (khasa) to elect a new prince-vali. Overriding the rights of the elder Aslanbech, his cousin Tatarkhan the Golden, who enjoyed Russian support, was elected senior prince. His opponent, Aslanbech, was in Crimea at the time and held a pro-Crimean orientation.^[124]

In 1737, Aslanbech Qeytuqo plotted against Tatarkhan, allying with the princes of the opposing faction (the Hatokhshoqo and the Misosts). Tatarkhan fled with his brothers to Astrakhan. Through the mediation of the Russian authorities, who highly valued his loyalty, the senior prince of Kabardia and his brothers returned to Kabardia and reconciled with Aslanbech.^[124]

In the summer of 1737, after the death of Tatarkhan, Aslanbech was elected the new Grand Prince of Kabardia. That same year, through the mediation of the Kalmyk Khan Donduk-Ombo, a reconciliation was reached between the leaders of the Kashkatau and Bakhsan parties, the two most powerful Kabardian princes, Aslanbech and Bemat. Aslanbech, elected senior prince of Kabardia, swore an oath of allegiance to Russia.^[124]

Jabagh Qazanoqo personally led the election campaign for Aslanbech, resulting in his victory.^[125] After Aslanbech became the prince, Qazanoqo was his closest advisor^[126] and influenced Aslanbech's Pan-Caucasian views.^[127][128] The first action of Prince Aslanbech was to introduce the principle that "only one state should exist between two seas" (the Black Sea and Caspian Sea)^[129] Aslanbech advocated for unification with other regions of the Caucasus, but did not have enough time or opportunity to fully implement this principle.^[130]

Russo-Circassian War (18th century)

Regional historians often mark the completion of the Mozdok fortress on July 17 (28), 1763, as the beginning of the Russo-Circassian War, which lasted 101 years. Following the instructions of Catherine II, the fortress was built in a strategic location situated on traditional livestock migration routes.^[131] According to Russian claims, one primary reason for building the fortress was to protect Russia's new Christian subjects. A prominent figure among them was Kurghoqo Qanchoqo, a Lesser Kabardian prince who sought Russian protection alongside his subjects and took the baptismal name Andrey Kanchokin-Cherkassky.^[131] Many Kabardian serfs began escaping to Mozdok to receive baptism in exchange for money and special privileges from Russia. Kabardian princes such as Qasey Hatokhshoqo and Misost Bematuqo sought to remove the fortress by sending delegations to Russian officials and seeking help from the Ottoman Empire and Crimea.^[131][132]

Kabardian princes viewed the foundation of Mozdok as an attack on their sovereignty, and in 1764, a delegation led by Prince Qeytuqo Kaysin traveled to St. Petersburg to demand the destruction of the fortress. However, Empress Catherine II refused these demands, stated that Mozdok was Russian territory, which was canceling the independent status previously recognized by the 1739 Treaty of Belgrade.^[131][133] After Russia refused to return the escaped peasants, many Kabardian nobles moved away from the Russian border toward the mountains and formed alliances with Western Circassians, as well as with the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate.^[131] Internal conflicts began within Kabardia as peasant uprisings occurred with the support of the Russian military. These movements further destabilized the social structure of the region.^[131]

Between 1765 and 1767, the first military clashes occurred as Russia intervened in local sovereignty. This led some Kabardian elite to begin migrating west toward Trans-Kuban.^[134] In response to the construction of the Mozdok fortress, Kabardian leaders collaborated with Western Circassians, including the Besleney and Chemguy, to plan attacks on Russian fortifications and organized a siege of the Kizlyar fortress in 1765.^[135]

During the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), Kabardian leaders such as Misost Bematuqo and Hamirza Qeytuqo sought to maintain their independence and joined the war. In 1769, Kabardian units clashed with Russian troops commanded by General de Medem at the Eshkakon site, located along the upper reaches of the Kuma River.^[135] The 1772 Treaty of Karasubazar between Russia and the Crimean Khanate formally declared Kabardia as a subject of the Russian Empire. This sparked immediate backlash from prominent Kabardian princes, who intensified their efforts to destroy the Mozdok fortress. By early 1773, under the leadership of Misost Bematiqo, the Kabardians began military preparations and sought an alliance with Devlet Giray, the newly appointed Ottoman-backed Crimean Khan, in direct opposition to the pro-Russian Sahib Giray.^[136] By 1774, a unified military force consisting of Kabardian units and Crimean Tatars gathered along the banks of the Malka River. While volunteers from various surrounding regions joined the cause, the backbone of this army was the heavily armed Kabardian cavalry. During a high-level council meeting involving Shahbaz Giray, Nekrasov Cossack commanders, and local leaders, a coordinated strategy for the assault on Mozdok was finalized.^[136]

In June 1774, Kabardian forces led by Misost Bematiqo and other leaders engaged the Russian army in a major pitched battle along the banks of the Gundelen River.^[135] In the same month, units that included the Kabardian leader Kurghoqo Tatarkhan launched a heavy assault on the Naurskaya redoubt. The forces maintained a siege of this Russian position for twelve hours before withdrawing.^[135]

Mozdok's presence led to a fierce joint offensive with Crimean forces against the Mozdok until the end of the Russo-Turkish War. On 21 June, 1774, the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca was signed. This agreement legally incorporated Kabardian lands into the Russian Empire and ended Kabardian sovereignty in official terms.^[132] The Kabardians did not accept this status, arguing that their relationship with Russia was based on friendship or hospitality rather than subjecthood.^[135]

Following the conclusion of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) and the signing of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, the Russian Empire sought to consolidate its southern frontier and establish permanent strategic control over the North Caucasus. While the treaty formally declared Kabardia an independent territory, Imperial authorities interpreted the accord as granting St. Petersburg exclusive influence over the region, severing traditional Kabardian ties with the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate.^[137]

To secure its strategic interests, Count Grigory Potemkin, President of the College of War, ordered the construction of a continuous military boundary stretching over 500 kilometers from Mozdok to Azov.^[126] On May 21, 1777, General Ivan Yakobi was appointed commander of the Caucasus Corps, replacing General Ivan de Medem, with specific instructions to enforce the construction of the Azov-Mozdok Line.^[138] The project involved building ten major fortresses, including Stavropol, Georgiyevsk, Pavlovsk, Alexandrovsky, and Marinskaya, linked by dozens of outposts, redoubts, and fortified stanitsas populated by resettled Volga and Khopyor Cossacks.^[139]

The placement of the fortified line passed directly through traditional Circassian lands, effectively severing Kabardian pastoralists from their fertile winter pastures along the Malka River and northern steppe zones, most notably the Qurey Plain (Kabardian: Къурей губгъуэ).^[60] The loss of these lands threatened the foundation of the Kabardian livestock economy. Furthermore, Russian garrisons restricted seasonal migrations and imposed customs duties on local trade routes.^[140] Between 1777 and 1778, Kabardian diplomatic missions sent petitions directly to Empress Catherine II, arguing that the construction of fortresses on sovereign land violated established treaties. When these diplomatic appeals were ignored by the Imperial administration, regional unrest escalated into open conflict.^[140]

Initial military skirmishes began in late 1777. General Yakobi received field reports indicating that allied Besleney and Chemguy Circassians under Kaziy Giray Sultan had assembled near Mount Beshtau, joining a force of roughly 4,000 Kabardian horsemen to monitor Russian construction columns.^[140]

In early 1778, hostilities broke out across multiple sectors of the line: Petrovsk Fort: In January 1778, a force of 3,000 Kabardian warriors attacked and seized Petrovsk Fort after the garrison evacuated under pressure.^[137] Pavlovsk Fortress: In June 1778, Prince Dulak commanded a body of 4,000 cavalry in a direct assault on the newly built Pavlovsk Fortress. The attack was repelled after an intense artillery engagement led by Colonel Baron Wilhelm von Asheraden.^[141] Stavropol & Arkhangelsk Redoubts: Throughout the remainder of 1778, Circassian raiding parties conducted continuous harassment against construction detachments, livestock herds, and supply wagons near Stavropol and Arkhangelsk.^[142]

Recognizing that localized raids could not halt the Russian fort network, Kabardian leaders began organizing a coordinated, national military alliance.

On March 29, 1779, a nationwide assembly (Khasa) of Kabardian princes (Pshi), nobles (Worq), and representatives from the neighboring Chemguy and Besleney principalities convened along the upper banks of the Baksan River.^[143]

The assembly was deeply divided over military strategy: The Moderate Faction: Grand Prince Jankhot I of Kabardia advocated for political diplomacy and vassalage, arguing that Kabardia lacked the manpower, heavy artillery, and economic reserves to endure a prolonged conflict with the Russian Empire.^[143] The Anti-Russian Faction: Led by Prince Misost Bematuqo and Prince Hamirza Qeytuqo, this faction demanded an immediate declaration of war to force the complete removal of Russian garrisons from their ancestral territories.^[143][144]

Circassian oral traditions record that when Banknot warned that "we are too few to challenge the state," the war council responded: "We are ready to die to be remembered in this old world, it is better for us to die with our honor."^[60] To enforce discipline, the assembly reinstated an ancient wartime law dictating that any noble or subject who refused to take up arms would be wrapped in wet black felt as a mark of public disgrace.^[143]

The assembly formally elected Prince Misost Bematuqo as Commander-in-Chief of the unified army. Prince Hamirza Qeytuqo was tasked with field operations, while Prince Qanemet Yelbezduqo was assigned to oversee intelligence and reconnaissance.^{[145][146][143]}

Following the council, the assembly drafted a formal declaration in the Tatar language and dispatched it to Major Dmitry Tuganov, commander of Mozdok Fortress. The letter demanded the immediate dismantling of all fortresses along the Azov-Mozdok Line and the withdrawal of Russian troops beyond the Terek River.^[138][143] When Lieutenant Colonel Yakim Chornin met Kabardian emissaries on May 1 to reiterate imperial control, Kabardian leadership formally severed all diplomatic relations.^[138]

Following the assembly, the Kabardian army established its primary strategic base in the densely forested valley of Qeytuqo Tuasha (Kabardian: Къетыкъуэ тIуащIэ) near present-day Psykhurei.^[145][147] Allied contingents of Chemguy, Besleney, Abaza, and Chechen warriors reinforced the main Kabardian force, bringing total mobilized strength to an estimated 10,000–15,000 men.^[138]

In late March 1779, Sultan Dulak spearheaded a surprise night assault on Marinskaya Fortress with 6,000–7,000 horsemen. The raiders killed 85 Don Cossacks, damaged external works, and recaptured over 5,000 head of stolen livestock before retreating into the foothills.^[148]

On May 12 [O.S. April 23], during Saint George's Day celebrations inside Alexandrovsky Fortress, an Armenian operative named Artemy Voskanyan, bribed by Prince Qanemet Yelbezduqo, set fire to large hay stores surrounding the garrison. The fire served as a signal for a massive Kabardian cavalry attack on the confused defenders, causing significant structural damage and casualties before Russian artillery drove the attackers back.^[145][143] Throughout May, coordinated strikes disrupted communications and targeted the fortresses of Stavropol, Alexeyevsky, and Kalinovsky, while Chechen allies engaged Russian outposts near Mozdok.^[147][149]

By early June, Prince Hamirza Qeytuqo assembled a strike force to cut off Russian relief columns moving along the Malka River.^[150] On June 8, Circassian forces surrounded Marinskaya Fortress and initiated formal siege operations, deploying 500 dismounted warriors to dig tactical approach trenches toward the defensive moat.^[149][151]

Upon receiving intelligence of the siege, General Ivan Yakobi assembled a relief force from Pavlovsk Fortress consisting of three infantry squares supported by field artillery and Cossack cavalry.^[152]

On the night of June 10, 1779, Yakobi's column deployed opposite the Kabardian lines. The Kabardians arranged their force into a single continuous formation spanning 4 kilometers.^[138] Over six hours of fierce combat, Kabardian elite cavalry launched repeated charges against the central infantry square where Yakobi was situated. However, disciplined Russian volley fire and canister shot prevented the horsemen from breaching the formations.^[153]

As the cavalry charges faltered, Captain Bas Y. led a sudden bayonet sally from inside Marinskaya Fortress, striking the Kabardian trench diggers from the rear.^[145] Caught between two fires, the Circassians were forced to retreat. The battle resulted in over 500 Kabardian casualties, including 50 prominent princes and nobles.^[154] Among the dead were the 74-year-old Prince Hamirza Qeytuqo and his son Ismel Qeytuqo.^[150]

Despite heavy losses at Marinskaya, Kabardian forces avoided decisive open-field battles throughout July and August 1779, shifting to hit-and-run tactics, burning supply crops, and severing courier routes.^[140] In response, Russian commanders reinforced garrisons along the line and deployed scouts to locate the main Kabardian war camp.^[155]

On September 27, Major General Fedor Fabritsian arrived at Pavlovsk Fortress with 8,000 battle-tested reinforcements, including heavy infantry regiments, Don Cossacks, and Kalmyk irregular cavalry.^[143][155] Learning that the main Kabardian army and its leaders were stationed at Qeytuqo Tuasha along the Malka River, Fabritsian and Yakobi devised a plan to encircle the camp.^[147]

On the night of September 28, Russian forces initiated a dual-column night march. General Yakobi positioned his infantry and field artillery along the northern bank of the Malka River to cut off retreat lines, while General Fabritsian led 1,000 Cossacks, 1,000 Kalmyks, and light infantry across the river to attack from the south.^[149][138]

At 7:00 AM on September 29 [N.S. October 10], Fabritsian launched a surprise dawn attack on the Kabardian camp.^[152] Cossack and Kalmyk cavalry rapidly stampeded and captured over 2,000 Kabardian horses grazing near the river, stripping the Circassian elite of their mobility.^[138]

Deprived of their mounts, roughly 250–350 high-ranking nobles and 50 princes formed defensive foot rings around the headquarters tent of Commander-in-Chief Misost Bematuqo.^[145][156] When offered terms of surrender, the Circassian nobles refused and engaged in hand-to-hand combat using swords (shashkas) and daggers (kindjals).^[143]

By 12:00 PM, Russian artillery and massed infantry fire completely destroyed the camp. Russian losses were reported as exceptionally light (around 36 killed across both columns), while nearly the entire assembled military and political leadership of Greater Kabardia was wiped out, including Commander-in-Chief Misost Bematuqo .^[147][154]

Following the disaster at Qeytuqo Tuasha, surviving Kabardian elders attempted to negotiate peace terms while retaining territorial integrity. General Yakobi rejected all conditional offers and launched a scorched-earth winter punitive campaign on November 27, 1779.^[138][145]

Russian columns under Colonel Ivan Savelyev advanced deep into Lesser Kabardia, while Yakobi's main force burned villages, grain stores, and livestock shelters across Greater Kabardia.^[140] Operating in sub-zero temperatures, the Russian army suffered over 1,500 non-combat casualties due to severe frostbite.^[140][145] However, the complete destruction of winter reserves left the civilian population facing mass famine.^[149]

On December 2, 1779, the remaining princes of Greater and Lesser Kabardia signed an unconditional instrument of submission at General Yakobi's headquarters.^[126][147]

The capitulation treaty signed in December 1779 imposed terms designed to permanently end Kabardian hegemony in the Central Caucasus:^[140][126]

• Heavy Livestock and Financial Reparations: Kabardia was required to deliver 2,150 high-bred war horses, 4,759 head of cattle, 4,539 sheep, and cash indemnity payments totaling 10,000 rubles.^[140]
• Surrender of Captives: Immediate return of all captured Imperial soldiers, Cossacks, deserters, and Christian subjects (including Georgian, Armenian, and Russian captives).^[126]
• Territorial Annexation: The strategic borders of Greater and Lesser Kabardia were formally fixed along the Malka River and Terek River. Kabardia permanently lost roughly one-third of its total ancestral territory, including all northern grazing plains and the Qurey Plain.^[156]
• Border Regulations: Circassians were strictly forbidden from crossing the Malka or Terek rivers, grazing livestock north of the border, or cutting timber without explicit written permits issued by Russian fort commanders. Aristocrats were limited to a maximum of two armed escorts when traveling near the border.^[126]
• Prohibition of Foreign Alliances: Kabardian princes were forced to sign solemn oaths severing all diplomatic, political, and military communication with the Ottoman Empire, the Crimean Khanate, and neighboring Chechen clans.^[126]
• Social Subversion of Feudal Hierarchy: In a clause designed to fracture Kabardian social structure, commoners (Tlhotqotl) were granted the explicit legal right to abandon their feudal lords and resettle freely near Russian fortresses and Mozdok without landlord interference or penalty.^[126][145]

The Seven Months' War was catastrophic for Kabardia. According to official reports submitted to St. Petersburg by Count Grigory Potemkin, over 2,000 Kabardian warriors died in combat during the seven-month campaign.^[140][156] Because Kabardian law dictated that horsemen of noble rank led charges in battle, casualties fell disproportionately on the ruling aristocrats.^[143]

Contemporary historical assessments estimate that over half of Kabardia's princely families (Pshi) and elite warrior class (Worq) perished between March and December 1779, creating a power vacuum that ended Kabardia's centuries-old regional dominance over neighboring North Caucasian groups.^[145][144]

The defeat in 1779 marked a turning point in the Russian-Circassian War. By establishing permanent control over the Malka and Terek river lines, Russia successfully separated Kabardia from Western Circassian tribes (such as the Abadzekh, Shapsugs, and Natuhays), preventing the formation of a unified Circassian state.^[145][139]

By 1784, Russia established four new fortifications in Lesser Kabardia. In response to this pressure, some local leaders joined the movement of Sheikh Mansur in 1785 and moved their settlements to Chechnya.^[134]

In 1793, the Russian government created "Class Courts" to establish administrative control. Kabardians resisted the Russian control by demanding Sharia courts, which initiated the Sharia Movement in 1794 under the leadership of Adildjeriy Hatokhshoqo, Ishak Abuqo and Ismail Hatokhshoqo.^[133][135] In 1799, the main leader of this movement, Prince Adildjeriy Hatokhshoqo, fled to Trans-Kuban to organize the resistance.^[134] In 1807, the Russian administration acknowledged that military force alone was not achieving its goals in the region. As a result, they temporarily allowed the creation of Sharia courts, known as mehkeme, to help maintain order and manage local affairs.^[135]

In the late 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, plague outbreaks occurred in the region. These epidemics are estimated to have destroyed 90% of the population, which fundamentally weakened the ethnic and political structure of Kabardia.^[132]

Kabardian raids

In 1810, Kabardian cavalry coordinated with Chechen units to launch raids on the Russian-controlled barracks at Priblijnaya and Prohladnaya. These actions were part of a broader effort to disrupt Russian military infrastructure in the region.^[135] From 1807 to 1810, Russian forces maintained a central military and economic blockade over Kabardia, during which period armed resistance and clashes continued. Until 1810, leaders like Prince Albaksid Qanchoqo carried out attacks against Russian units near the Georgian Military Road.^[134]

By the 1820s, though outwardly submitting, the Kabardians shifted their tactics: instead of open, mass uprisings, they began organizing swift attacks in small, raiding bands, inflicting constant damage on the border population. The humane policies of General Delpozzo, who succeeded Bulgakov, failed to stop the raids and were instead perceived as weakness.^[157]

This volatile state of affairs confronted Aleksey Yermolov upon his appointment as Commander-in-Chief of the Caucasus in 1816. Yermolov recognized that religious inflence backed by the Ottoman Empire (the Sublime Porte) had systematically alienated the local population from Russia by replacing traditional customs with Islamic courts, thereby diminishing the authority of native princes and best families. Deprived of traditional status, noble young men turned to raiding along the Caucasian Line. Traveling to Tiflis in 1816, Yermolov stopped at Georgiyevsk, where he met with several Kabardian princes. He received them cordially but warned them sternly that they must restrain their uzdens (nobles) from border plunder. Expecting little compliance, Yermolov demanded hostages and explicitly warned that raiding would cost those hostages their lives. He simultaneously cracked down on the complacency of the Don Cossacks guarding the posts. A clear example occurred on the night of October 9–10, 1816, when about fifteen Kabardian raiders attacked a mill near the village of Prokhladnaya. The raiders killed three sleeping Cossacks, captured a man and a woman who had brought grain for milling, and escaped undetected. Despite rifle fire and screams, neither the nearby Cossack outpost nor a post station half a mile away intervened, likely due to sleeping guards or fear of engagement. Outraged by this gross failure of border defense, Yermolov immediately placed both outpost officers on court-martial, establishing a precedent of strict military accountability across the border cordon.^[157]

Throughout 1817 and 1818, border skirmishes occurred in rapid succession, illustrating the constant danger faced by Russian settlers and soldiers along the Malka River, Kislovodsk, and the Terek River. In the summer of 1817, a morning patrol from the Belomechetsky outpost identified horse tracks from four Kabardian riders. Eleven Cossacks under Ensign Karpov pursued them across the Malka, discovering four hobbled horses. However, the four Kabardians quickly mounted, opened fire, killing the lead Cossack instantly, and successfully fought off the eleven Cossacks with cover fire before escaping beyond the Baksan River. Yermolov strongly reprimanded Ensign Karpov for indecisive leadership. Similar audacity was shown on December 7, 1817, near Makhin Kurgan close to Kislovodsk, where a small party ambushed eight returning Don Cossacks, killing one, wounding two, and driving off their horses while the rest fled. Days later near Yekaterinogradskaya, seven Kabardians ambushed a retired Cossack named Gorshenev as he crossed the Terek in a canoe to tie up his boat, capturing him in broad daylight before his comrades could cross, and subsequently snatching a thirteen-year-old Cossack boy from the village gardens that same evening. In January 1818, six Kabardians ambushed an artillery sleigh carrying timber near Soldatskaya, driving off three horses despite being outnumbered by eight armed Russians, an event Yermolov condemned in his personal notes as sheer cowardice. Further raids occurred on April 12 near Pavlodolskaya, where raiders severely wounded a isolated Cossack with sabers after his horse was killed in an attempt to protect a hay cart.^[157]

The persistent instability compelled Russian detachments to track raiders directly to their sanctuaries, leading to high-profile reprisals against uncooperative villages. A prominent example was Tramov Aul, located ten miles from Konstantinovo, which served as a notorious base for raiders while claiming peaceful status. On the night of May 3–4, 1818, an ambush team of ten Cossacks under Esaul Savchinin set up a hideout at a key river crossing. Over the course of the night, two separate groups of returning Kabardian raiders were engaged by the ambush team. Both groups fled directly into Tramov Aul for safety. Russian forces under Captain Astakhov pursued the raiders into the village streets, killing three, but the village elders flatly refused to surrender the remaining fugitives. Because the village had suffered from plague the previous year, Astakhov refrained from entering houses directly and reported to Yermolov. Viewing the village as an unpunished hub of banditry, Yermolov ordered troops to surround Tramov Aul, evacuate its residents, burn the entire village to the ground, and confiscate its livestock to supply the border line. Yermolov issued a stern declaration to the Kabardian nobility, warning that any village harboring raiders would face complete destruction, confiscation of goods, and severe punishment. Meanwhile, General Delpozzo attempted a covert strategy to neutralize raiding leaders, ordering a Cossack commander to lure Prince Edik Aydemirov, one of the most prominent raid organizers, into a trap under the guise of trading stolen horses. Aydemirov and an associate were killed and thrown into the river, but his death failed to halt the incursions as new warlords immediately took his place.^[157]

Recognizing that punitive measures had failed to establish order, Yermolov personally traveled to Kabardia in October 1818, arriving at Prokhladnaya to meet over six hundred assembled Kabardian leaders, princes, and Muslim clergy. In a deliberate display of confidence, Yermolov traveled with a minimalist escort of just 180 infantrymen, two garrison cannons, and a small staff, addressing the assembly with severe warnings. To enforce systemic change, Yermolov replaced the aging Delpozzo with Major General Karl von Stahl, an energetic commander from the Tsitsianov military tradition. He also secured the removal of the civil governor, Malinovsky, combining military and civil authority directly in General Stahl's hands to eliminate bureaucratic infighting. Despite Stahl taking command at Georgievsk in early 1819, border life remained in constant turmoil. Raiders frequently hid in the terrain along the Kuma River for days; in one instance near Alexandrovskaya Sloboda, raiders seized seventeen horses in broad daylight, while near Nadezhdinskaya, two civilian hunters were shot from ambush. Desperate criminal elements from the Russian side also took advantage of the chaos. On Christmas Eve, ten runaway serfs belonging to Major Rostovanov stole five premium horses and an unattended herd near Pavlovskaya Stanitsa, fleeing past Cossack patrols all the way into the Chegem Gorge. Mistrust ran so deep that innocent civilians were often caught in the crossfire: near Soldatskaya, two peaceful Kabardian farmers traveling in an oxcart fled into the brush out of panic when approached by a patrol, resulting in a violent struggle where Cossack Bugaevsky held down one farmer while his comrade accidentally shot Bugaevsky in the leg while killing the farmer.^[157]

By 1820 and 1821, while Yermolov was occupied in St. Petersburg and General Stahl was tasked with constructing the Sunzha Line, Kabardian raids grew into large-scale military incursions. At Christmastide in 1820, a force of one hundred Kabardians attacked winter pastures at Bald Mountain near modern Pyatigorsk, driving off two hundred cattle under open gunfire. A lone Cossack named Dorofeev accidentally stumbled into the middle of multiple enemy pickets surrounding the Podkumok area, escaping only by charging through heavy crossfire on his horse, while a pursuing force of twenty-three Cossacks under Ensign Panteleev was outmatched and unable to stop the raiders from retreating into the mountains with their loot. In January 1821, a raiding party occupied Gorkaya Balka near Georgievsk, murdering several local peasants and Cossacks, including travelers Yegolnikov, Shein, and Zimin, while taking Zimin's grandson and two peaceful Kabardians captive. A Cossack force under Fifty-man Govorkov eventually tracked the party of fifteen raiders to the Belomechetsky outpost, engaging in a fierce firefight and recapturing twenty-two oxen as the raiders crossed the Malka. Later that year, twelve Kabardians ambushed eleven Armenian merchants traveling to the Fyodorovo fair near Sukhaya Padina, killing eight merchants, leaving one wounded, taking two captive, and looting their cartloads of merchandise. A brave counter-attack led by Cossack Officer Khlamov and twelve men pursued the raiders to the riverbank, fighting hand-to-hand to recover twenty-five packs of stolen goods, an act for which Yermolov promoted Khlamov to sergeant. By late 1821, influenced by Turkish emissaries spreading rumors of imminent war with Russia, the Kabardian nobility openly aligned against imperial forces. With the Sunzha Line completed in September 1821, Yermolov returned to the Caucasus prepared to initiate a decisive, large-scale military campaign across Kabardia.^[157]

Russian Campaign (1821–1822)

The plague epidemic between 1803 and 1811 severely reduced the population. Between 1816 and 1822, General Yermolov implemented a policy based on military force. Yermolov forced the Kabardians along with the warriors relocate to lowland areas and took control of their mountain pastures.^[133]

In 1818, the construction of the Grozny and Nazran fortifications served to sever communication between Kabardia and Chechnya.^[134] The destruction of Tram village in 1818 started a new wave of migration toward Western Circassia. Between 1821 and 1822, intensive Russian campaigns targeted the center of Kabardia.^[134]

Between 1821 and 1822, Kabardians resisted the new fortifications built by General Yermolov within Kabardia. The resistance fighters retreated to the mountains and used hit-and-run tactics to harass Russian troops as they attempted to establish permanent control over the territory.^[135]

By late 1821, General Aleksey Yermolov, Commander-in-Chief of the Caucasus Corps, initiated a decisive offensive strategy against Kabardia. Previous Russian military operations had been largely restricted to passive defense along the Terek and Malka rivers due to ongoing conflicts in Chechnya and Dagestan. Yermolov proposed advancing the defensive line directly into Kabardian territory by constructing a chain of fortifications at the exits of key mountain gorges. This maneuver aimed to permanently isolate lowland Kabardian villages from militant Caucasian groups in the mountains and the adjacent Trans-Kuban region. To prevent Kabardians from wintering their livestock on the plains, Russian forces initiated mobile offensive raids ahead of the spring fortification campaign.^[158]

In late 1821, Staff Captain Tokarevsky led a company of the Kabardian Infantry Regiment from the Yelizavetinskoye fortification|Elizavetinsky Redoubt into the mountains, seizing enemy livestock and routing a Kabardian detachment with artillery grapeshot. On 15 December 1821, General Stal ordered an assault against three pro-Kabardian Abaza auls on the Kuma River, Mahukov, Khokhandukov, and Biberdov. A force comprising two companies of the Tenginsky Regiment and 300 Line Cossacks under Major Kurila breached the settlements. Cossack units led by Captain Virzilin, Yesaul Luchkin, and Ensign Starozhilov captured 1,000 head of livestock and 149 prisoners. A counterattack led by Prince Aslanbech Biyaslan was repulsed after Biarslanov was wounded, at the cost of 14 Russian casualties.^[158]

In January 1822, Colonel Katsyrev assumed command of a mobile force at Yekaterinogradskaya consisting of a 1,000-man battalion of the Kabardian Regiment, four artillery pieces, 200 line soldiers, 200 Chechen cavalry under Captain Chernov, and 100 Mozdok Cossacks. Katsyrev swept through Lesser Kabardia and Greater Kabardia, destroying anti-Russian auls including Boruk, Batash, Anzor, and Aliy. Despite harsh winter thaws, dwindling horse forage, and continuous skirmishing, during which Staff Captain Yakubovich was wounded, Katsyrev's forces disrupted local resistance between the Baksan and Terek rivers. Concurrent operations under Major Taranovsky resulted in the destruction of a 20-man Kabardian picket and the capture of over 500 livestock along the Shalukha River.^[158]

In late January 1822, a 500-man Trans-Kuban cavalry force led by fugitive princes Hatokhshoqo Bemat, Hamirza Jambolet, and Qarashey Qaziy crossed near Kamenny Most. They successfully escorted 250 families from the Zhantemirov and Tramov auls across the Kuban River. On 4 February 1822, the same party ambushed Ensign Teterevyatnikov near the Tanlytsky outpost. A responding Cossack relief force under Lieutenant Colonel Tarasov and Captain Kuznetsov was routed, resulting in 12 Cossacks killed, Captain Kuznetsov missing, and the total annihilation of a 10-man outpost under Sergeant Vagin. Throughout February and March 1822, Katsyrev launched retaliatory strikes into the Baksan and Tabashin gorges, razing five major auls, including the Kasayev settlement.^[158]

Yermolov issued formal proclamations offering amnesty to Kabardians who voluntarily abandoned the mountain gorges to settle on the lowland plains along the Terek, Urukh, and Baksan rivers. By March 1822, approximately 14 large auls comprising 945 households had relocated to the plains. However, the resettlement faced severe complications as settlers faced violent retaliation from mountain princes led by Aslanbech Besleney, and a friendly settlement was mistakenly attacked by Russian troops under Staff Captain Tokarevsky and Captain Chernov, prompting official reprimands from General Aleksey Velyaminov and compensation for the victims.^[158]

In late March and early April 1822, Katsyrev advanced into the Chegem River and Nalchik gorges. When Kabardian leaders refused to provide high-ranking prince hostages, Katsyrev destroyed the aul of Kasbulat on 4 April. During the engagement, both sons of Prince Aslanbech Besleney were wounded (one mortally), along with the senior Kabardian effendi. Simultaneously, Don Cossack Colonel Pobedny led 700 men across Kamenny Most into Abaza territory, capturing 6,000 sheep and a large horse herd, breaking through an enemy gorge ambush using artillery grapeshot near Batalpashinsk. On 17 April, Katsyrev stormed the stone saklya of Uzden Hajji-Tambiy along the Keshpek River, killing 18 defenders in hand-to-hand combat.^[158]

In May 1822, Yermolov personally led an expeditionary force of two infantry battalions, eight guns, and 300 Cossacks to clear the upper mountain gorges, operating alongside General Stal and General Velyaminov. During the advance up the Baksan Gorge toward Mount Elbrus, Russian troops encountered severe geographical obstacles along cliffside ledges above the Baksan River. When the path collapsed into a three-fathom-deep pit, soldiers of the Shirvan Infantry Regiment filled the chasm with their rolled overcoats to allow the battalion to jump across. A second Shirvan battalion discovered a narrow cliff fissure blocked by rock, dubbed "Yakubovich's Hole", where soldiers squeezed through single-file and Major Yakubovich briefly became stuck in the opening before being pulled through. Facing mountain artillery hauled up cliffside paths and multi-column encirclement, the primary Kabardian gathering near Xanthi dissolved, and key Kabardian leaders fled across the Kuban River into the Trans-Kuban region.^[158]

Following the summer expedition, Yermolov permanently bisected the region by constructing the New Kabardian Line in late 1822. Running along the foothills of the Black Mountains from Vladikavkaz to the upper Kuban, the line anchored five major fortifications at key gorge exits at Baksan, Chegem, Nalchik, Cherek, and Urukh. Intermediate outposts and restored fortifications at Kislovodsk, Podkumok, and Kamenny Most secured the central Caucasus line, permanently separating lowland Kabardians from mountain insurgents.^[158] In 1822, the office of the "Grand Prince" in Kabardia was officially abolished.^[132]

The "Kabardian Provisional Court," which was under Russian administration was established in Nalchik. The last Grand Prince of Kabardia, Jankhot Kushuk Bechmirza, was appointed as the first chairman of this court.^[133]

Revolt of 1825

Following General Alexey Yermolov's extensive military campaigns throughout the region, severe political and social tension mounted among the Kabardian population resettled on the lowland plains. Highland Circassians and anti-Russian Kabardian factions repeatedly urged the lowland communities to abandon their lands under Russian administration and migrate beyond the Kuban River into the protective mountain gorges. Political discontent stemmed primarily from ongoing land allocation disputes, the systematic denial of traditional noble privileges, and the strict administrative and military controls imposed by Russian authorities. In 1824, local administrative friction increased substantially under Lieutenant Colonel Bulgakov, the newly appointed commander of the Kabardian Infantry Regiment. Concurrently, regional stability across the North Caucasus was further disrupted by the widespread uprising in neighboring Chechnya, the dramatic assassination of General Alexey Lisanevich, and a marked increase in Trans-Kuban cross-border raids. An extensive emigration movement developed across Kabardia as whole families and entire communities secretly relocated beyond the Kuban River to establish independent settlements in the highland regions. These remote communities frequently served as operational bases for raids launched against the fortified Caucasian Cordon Line. Internal judicial bodies within Kabardia, operating under traditional law, often refused to prosecute individuals accused by Russian officials of participating in these cross-border military raids.^[159]

Between 1822 and mid-1824, large-scale armed clashes on the Kabardian plain had largely ceased as local populations adapted to the new military oversight. However, on 14 September 1824, a party of six armed Kabardians attacked a family of Cossacks from the Volga Regiment who were returning from a hay field near the village of Maryevskaya (Soldatskoye). Cossack Rasskazov was killed during the immediate assault, his wife was severely wounded, and several family members were abducted across the Malka River. Russian Cossack patrols tracked the raiders back toward the aul of Uzden Atabech near the Zvezdenny-Brody redoubt, managing to capture six primary suspects following a brief skirmish and pursuit along the riverbank.^[159]

In late September 1824, while a primary Russian military force was deployed far beyond the Kuban River at Sagaush, a large raiding party composed of Shapsugs, Abadzekhs, and anti-Russian Kabardians bypassed several cordon posts along the upper Kuban. On 21 September, the raiding party successfully crossed the Kuban River near Kamenny Most and advanced rapidly along the Malka River valley. They were joined by prominent local supporters, including Jambolet Qushuq, the influential son of the Kabardian Grand Prince. On 29 September 1824, the combined raiding force launched a coordinated attack on an outpost positioned along the main road to Soldatskoye (Maryevka) during a period of heavy rain. Upon entering the village while most of the adult male residents were working in distant agricultural fields, the force engaged an Astrakhan Cossack guard post, killing twelve defenders and local residents during the opening engagement. Official administrative reports recorded eight civilians killed and 113 captured during the raid. The raiders thoroughly looted property, seized vast herds of livestock, and set fire to ten major structures, including the local prayer house, the medical hospital, and central grain stores, before making a rapid withdrawal across the Malka River toward the safety of the Baksan and Chegem gorges with their captives.^[159]

During their retreat into the narrow Chegem Gorge, the raiding force unexpectedly encountered a Russian military detachment commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Bulgakov, who was advancing directly from the Baksan fortification with a full infantry company and two field artillery pieces. Citing deep concerns for the physical safety of the numerous civilian captives tied to the column, Bulgakov chose not to engage the heavily laden horsemen, allowing the entire raiding party to retreat unmolested into the high mountains. General Yermolov strongly criticized Bulgakov's tactical decision upon receiving news of the encounter, publicly accusing him of cowardice under fire and immediately relieving him of his command over the Kabardian Infantry Regiment.^[159]

While positioned securely within the Chegem Gorge, elements of the raiding party executed further tactical maneuvers against local settlements along the Cherek River and Baksan River that remained loyal to the Russian administration. Prince Hamurzin raided several auls belonging to Uzdens Aslankirov and Kazanishev, stealing extensive livestock and abducting numerous residents. Prince Qushuq mounted an immediate pursuit with local levies, managing to recover a significant portion of the plundered goods. Simultaneously, Prince Bemat Hatokhshoqo led an armed force directly into the Baksan region, burning several settlements whose leaders refused to abandon the plain and forcibly moving the inhabitants toward the Chegem Gorge. In response to these developments, Major Taranovsky dispatched a multi-branch detachment from the Mechetki fortification. Russian forces engaged the raiding party between Mechetki and Kishpek, relying heavily on field artillery and concentrated small-arms fire to halt the highlanders' advance. Infantry units under Lieutenant Kablukov and Ensigns Voropanov and Kostin secured the adjacent strategic heights, forcing the highlanders to abandon their forward positions and retreat deeper into the Chegem Gorge. Taranovsky's force resecured the captured supply trains and intercepted a significant portion of the fleeing population, forcing them to return to their original settlements on the plains.^[159]

To avoid complete encirclement by converging Russian columns, which included Prince Bekovich-Cherkassky's detachment stationed at Kamenny Most, Major Rodionov's forces operating near the Zelenchuk passes, and Colonel Lukovkin's mobile patrols, a large section of the raiding party executed a grueling high-altitude retreat. They moved past Uruspievsky directly beneath the snowline of the main Caucasus ridge, eventually descending toward the Laba River basin and Mount Akhmed. However, several prominent anti-Russian Kabardian leaders maintained strong defensive positions within the key mountain passes. Shortly thereafter, a fast-moving party of 150 horsemen drove off over 2,000 horses from rich pastures along the Malka River that belonged to Prince Qushuq and other pro-Russian local leaders.^[159]

Subsequent military engagements and guerrilla actions occurred along both the Kabardian Line and the Right Flank throughout late 1824, 1825, and early 1826: On 18 October 1824, fourteen highlanders launched a swift attack on agricultural workers from Novosel'tsy, successfully capturing two peasants. On 25 October 1824, a raiding party attacked the isolated Velikanov farmstead located near Otkaznoye, resulting in three defenders killed and five captured. On 29 October 1824, a major 500-man mounted force led by Jembulat Boletuqo crossed the Kuban River near Prochny Okop, launching raids against farmsteads situated near Kamennobrodskoye and Sengileyevka. They captured several regimental horse herds before being engaged near Ovechiy Brod by a company of the Navaginsky Regiment and 100 Don Cossacks under the command of Esaul Dutkin, who successfully recovered 170 stolen horses after a bitter fight. On 18 December 1824, Jembulat led another massive 500-man party across the Kuban River near the Romanovsky outpost, striking out toward the Chalbas River valley. Alerted by a chain of signal smoke beacons, combined Cossack reserves from the Kazan, Tiflis, Temizhbekskaya, and Caucasian line regiments under Prince Bekovich and Lieutenant Colonel Zaleshchinsky pursued the raiding force for 35 miles across open steppe, inflicting heavy casualties and forcing an immediate retreat back across the line. On 29 March 1826, a critical supply convoy carrying military ammunition and food provisions from Yekaterinograd to Vladikavkaz was heavily ambushed near the Ardon outpost by a large mounted party of highlanders. Non-commissioned officer Puchkov quickly organized the defense, forming a tight wagon square with 35 line soldiers and civilian drivers. The escort successfully repulsed numerous mounted charges over several continuous hours, suffering 14 killed and wounded before the attackers finally withdrew from the field. Emperor Nicholas I subsequently promoted Puchkov to the rank of ensign and awarded George Crosses to all surviving members of the escort unit. On 12 May 1826, a group of 40 Kabardian horsemen led by Prince Besleney Hamirza advanced from Chechnya directly onto the Kabardian plain to reignite local resistance. Intercepted by a patrol of 20 Volga Cossacks, they were forced to withdraw into the cover of the Cherek Gorge before moving south toward Digoria.^[159]

In late 1825 and continuing into mid-1826, Russian military authorities carried out targeted retaliatory campaigns and executed several key political figures associated with the widespread unrest, including Jambolet Qushuq, the influential son of the Grand Prince of Kabardia. The military actions of 1826 effectively marked the final major period of organized, armed anti-Russian resistance on the Kabardian plain. In subsequent decades, the direct implementation of Russian administrative organs and military governorships systematically reduced the traditional judicial and political authority of the Kabardian princely class, leading to permanent structural changes in local social hierarchies and the long-term stabilization of the lowland territory.^[159]

Aftermath

By the end of 1822, the center of Kabardia was completely occupied by Russia. During this period, between 13,000 and 20,000 Kabardians fled to Trans-Kuban.^[134] Between 1810 and 1830, many Kabardian aristocrats who refused to submit to Russian rule moved to free territories in Western Circassia, particularly along the Laba River. These Kabardians are referred to in historical sources as "Hajrets", and they continued their resistance from there.^[131]

In April 1825, Russian forces destroyed a major Hajret village belonging to Prince Karamirza Aliy Misost, causing over 1,000 civilian deaths. In September, Hajret forces responded by destroying the village of Soldatskoye. Following the destruction of Soldatskoye, Hajret Kabardian and Western Circassian forces executed a strategic retreat known as the Ice Crossing to escape Russian encirclement. The cavalry units traveled approximately 120 kilometers across the freezing and high-altitude passes of the Greater Caucasus Range. This maneuver is considered a unique achievement in the history of the Caucasian War, as the Circassians maintained military discipline under extreme weather conditions and constant pursuit to successfully reach independent territory.^[134]

In June 1828, a large Circassian cavalry force of 3,000 men, primarily composed of Hajrets, broke through the Russian border line. During this operation, they destroyed the Russian village of Nezlobnoye located in the center of Kabardia.^[134]

On November 15, 1830, a major raid was launched against the Ersakonskoye fortification. This attack was led by Kabardian nobles living in Western Circassia, such as Muhammad-Mirza Botash. In May 1831, the Hajrets initiated a major two-pronged operation aimed at rescuing the population remaining in occupied Kabardia and relocating them to the independent territories of Trans-Kuban. The first column was led by the brothers Aslandjeriy and Pshimakhua Beslan, while the second was commanded by Muhammad Hatokhshoqo and Bechmirza Dokhshuqo. To counter these persistent insurgencies, the Russian-established "Kabardian Provisional Court" was forced to mobilize two separate local militia units consisting of 800 and 600 men.^[134]

By the 1830s, Kabardia was under complete Russian military control. Russia's command over the communication routes in Kabardia played a key role in the failure of Imam Shamil's attempts to unite Western Circassia and the Eastern Caucasus during the 1840s and 1850s.^[131]

In April 1846, Imam Shamil led a military expedition into Kabardia to establish contact with Western Circassians and create a united military line. However, he couldn't receive the expected support from the majority of local Kabardian princes in Kabardia and was forced to retreat to Chechnya after the battles.^[131]

Following the official end of the war in 1864, a large portion of the surviving Kabardian population was exiled to the Ottoman Empire during the Circassian genocide.^[133]

Destruction of the traditional agricultural system

According to Bgazhnokov, the loss of Kabardia's eastern territories in the lower Terek River basin during the 17th and 18th centuries, followed by territorial losses during the Russo–Circassian War, reduced the territory of Kabardia by more than tenfold and its population by approximately ten to fifteen times. He states that Johann Blaramberg estimated the population in 1804 at approximately 30,000 families in Greater Kabardia and 15,000 in Lesser Kabardia. Bgazhnokov further argues that Russian military expansion, the plague epidemic of 1810–1812, and the campaigns of 1822–1825 caused a severe demographic decline, after which Kabardia ceased to exist as one of the principal political entities of the Caucasus.^[211]

Cereals

Among cultivated crops, millet and barley occupied a central place from ancient times, with millet eventually becoming the dominant cereal. Bread and other millet-based foods formed an important part of the Circassian diet. Millet was also regarded as the preferred fodder for horses, which held a prominent place in Adyghe culture and were traditionally viewed as companions closely connected to humans.^[212]