Kalai Kafirnigan

Qalʹai Kofarnihon is situated on the right bank of the Kofarnihon River (also transliterated from Russian as Kafirnigan), approximately 80 kilometres (50 mi) southwest of Dushanbe, near the village of Esambay in the Khatlon Region of Tajikistan.^[4][5]

The fortification at Qalʹai Kofarnihon was presumably built between the late 4th and early 6th centuries CE.^[4] Archaeological excavations have revealed that the city experienced three distinct phases of occupation: an early Hellenistic period, a middle Kushan period, and an upper early medieval period.^[4] Buddhism in Tokharistan experienced a revival under the Western Turks (known as the Tokhara Yabghus), who ruled the region during the 7th–8th centuries. The Turkic nobility and local populations predominantly followed Hinayana Buddhism.^[1][2] Qalʹai Kofarnihon was one of several monasteries built during this period, reflecting a high level of artistic and religious activity.^[1] The discovery of a Zoroastrian fire temple during excavations in 2008–2009 significantly altered scholarly understanding of the site. Previously, archaeologists working in the 1970s had believed that only Buddhism was practiced there.^[3] The fire temple dating to the 6th–8th centuries, was found at a depth of 60–70 centimetres (24–28 in) and contained a well-preserved altar.^[3] This finding confirmed that Zoroastrianism was also practiced in the region during this period.^[3]

The South Tajikistan Archaeological Expedition led by Professor Boris Litvinsky, conducted the main excavations at Qalʹai Kofarnihon between 1974 and 1980.^[4] The expedition involved teams headed by E. V. Antonova, A. V. Sedov, V. I. Solovyov, and others, with participation from the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Hermitage Museum, and the Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan.^[4] A third expedition organized by archaeologists and scholars from the Museum of Antiquities resumed excavations in 2007–2009.^[3] Among the finds from this later campaign were ceramic vessels, several coins, and terracotta figurines.^[3]

The fortified settlement consists of two main parts, the shahristan (the city proper) and the citadel, separated by a moat.^[4] The citadel extends 275 metres (902 ft) from north to south, with a width of 100–150 metres (330–490 ft), covering an area of 3.5 hectares (8.6 acres).^[4] The entire site is surrounded by a wall with projecting towers and an outer moat. The main gate was located in the northern part of the eastern wall.^[4]

The Buddhist temple at Qalʹai Kofarnihon included a square sanctuary surrounded by a corridor along with service and auxiliary rooms. The entrance took the form of a columned portico.^[6] Both the sanctuary and the surrounding corridor were richly decorated with murals.^[6] The Zoroastrian fire temple discovered in 2008, dates to the 6th–8th centuries CE.^[3] It was found at a shallow depth of 60–70 centimetres (24–28 in) and contained a preserved altar where fire was kindled as a symbol of unity and communication with God.^[3] The discovery challenged the previously held belief that the site was exclusively Buddhist.^[3]

Qalʹai Kofarnihon is particularly famous for its high quality wall paintings (murals), which date to the late 6th or 7th century CE.^[1][2] The murals depict various Buddhist rituals and ceremonies.^[4] They are executed on a red ground layer and show stylistic connections with Gandharan and Gupta art belonging to the distinctive Tokharistan school of painting. The donors depicted in the murals wear kaftans (turn-lap robes) which were fashionable among Turkic and Sogdian populations of the time. The following murals now housed in the National Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan, are among the most significant finds from the site.

• 
  Buddhist ceremonial scene from Qalʹai Kofarnihon depicting a standing monk holding a lotus, a kneeling male donor, and two female devotees. 7th–early 8th century CE. National Museum of Antiquities, Dushanbe, Tajikistan.
• 
  Detail of a female devotee from the Qalʹai Kofarnihon murals, shown holding a lotus flower and wearing a distinctive headdress. 7th–early 8th century CE. National Museum of Antiquities Dushanbe.
• 
  Fragment of a mural depicting a male figure possibly a noble donor or a monastic attendant, from Qalʹai Kofarnihon. 7th–early 8th century CE. National Museum of Antiquities, Dushanbe.

In addition to the murals excavations at Qalʹai Kofarnihon have yielded numerous artifacts including:

• Approximately 700 seals, important for understanding the economic, administrative, and religious life of the period.
• Ceramic vessels.
• Coins.
• Terracotta figurines, including a kneeling male figurine, possibly a Buddhist guardian or a noble devotee.^[3]

The murals from Qalʹai Kofarnihon along with other significant finds, are currently housed in the National Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan in Dushanbe.^[1][2]

• Ajina Tepe
• Kafir Qalʹa
• Tokhara Yabghus
• Buddhism in Central Asia