Kingdom of Kalpi

In 1400 AD, shortly after Timur's invasion of India, Mahmud declared independence assuming the name Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah. He appointed his brother Junaid Khan as wazir.^[6] The last Tughlaq ruler, Mahmud Shah (r. 1394–1413), recognized him as Sultan.^[7] He subdued the Rajput insurgents of Khandaut. There he established a new town Mahmudabad with a strong fort and palace after himself. Sultan Mahmud Khan launched a series of successful campaigns against Rajput chiefs in the region. Next, he invaded Hamirpur,^[d] forcing its submission. He then sacked Samoni and Mathura, and conquered Ghora and Gwalior, defeating ruler Bairam Deo. When Bhilam of Kandal and Bairam of Ghora rebelled and plundered near Mahoba, Mahmud swiftly marched, defeated the combined rebel forces at Kandal, and built a major fort at Mahoba under Muzaffar Khan. Several local chiefs submitted and agreed to pay tribute. Later, upon learning of Bairam’s plan to attack Kara, the Sultan launched a pre-emptive strike on Ghora, routed his army, plundered and destroyed the settlement, forcing Bairam to flee with heavy losses.^[8] He then launched campaign towards Prayag and Arail,^[e] devastating the cities and securing Kara. When Sulaiman bin Daud Chap rebelled and attacked Nizam Khan, the Sultan marched to Erich and besieged the fort, reinforced by Malwa Sultan Dilawar Khan. A large Rajput force led by Rai Sumer was defeated on the Betwa River.^[9] This victory fostered friendly relations with the Malwa Sultanate.^[10] In a separate campaign against the Chauhans of Etawah, he plundered Kanar, Phaphund, Andawah, Karhal, and Jakhan, but failed to capture Etawah fort. He subjugated Kamit (in Chambal region) and Hathkant (village in Bah), destroyed the great fort of Udairaj, and ravaged areas near Gwalior until the local Rai submitted. The Sultan then pardoned him and returned to Kalpi.^[11] Nasiruddin Mahmud died in 1411. His son Qadir Khan succeeded his father assuming the title Ikhtiyar-ud-dunya-waddin Qadir Shah.^[12]

In April 1413, Sultan Ibrahim Shah of Jaunpur besieged Muhammadabad. After several days of fighting and losing valuable elephants, he failed to capture the city and withdrew. In 1414, Ibrahim returned with a large army, captured Mahoba, Rath, Shahpur, Erich, and Bhander. After heavy pressure and casualties on Qadir Shah's side, Kalpi accepted Jaunpur suzerainty. Ibrahim then returned to Jaunpur.^[13] To counter Jaunpur influence, Qadir Shah formed an alliance with Hoshang Shah of Malwa by marrying his sister in around 1413-1414. Malwa treated Kalpi as a friendly vassal state.^[14] Qadir Shah broke allegiance with Jaunpur, recaptured Mahoba and Rath, and after a siege of over two years, seized the fort of Erich.^[15] In 1427, Ibrahim Sharqi again attacked Kalpi. This time Qadir Shah called for help from Delhi Sultan Mubarak Shah. Delhi forces clashed with Jaunpur troops near Etawah and Mali Kotah. After fierce battles and heavy losses on both sides the armies withdrew in March 1428. Ibrahim returned to Jaunpur and Mubarak Shah to Delhi.^[16]

After Qadir Shah's death in 1432, nobles installed his second son^[17] Jalal Khan, who was a maternal nephew of Hoshang Shah, on the throne with the support of wazir Mubarak Khan and Nizam Khan. Meanwhile, Qadir Shah's elder son Nasir Khan sought help from Jaunpur. Sultan Ibrahim Sharqi sheltered Nasir Khan and invaded Kalpi. Jalal Khan proved weak and unpopular, leading to his imprisonment and exile to Malwa. Nobles then briefly raised Firuz Khan, a younger son of Qadir Shah, as ruler. In 1433–34, Ibrahim and Nasir Khan besieged Muhammadabad. Hoshang Shah of Malwa intervened with an army, forcing Ibrahim to withdraw. Hoshang reinstated Jalal Khan. However, Jalal's continued misrule caused more unrest. Nizam Khan, along with his son Umar Khan, was executed, and wazir Mubarak Khan fled the capital and settled in Erich. As nobles defected to Jaunpur, Ibrahim returned, besieged the capital again. With Mubarak Khan and other nobles switching sides, Muhammadabad fell to the Sharqis. Nasir Khan was installed as ruler but soon abdicated in favor of Jalal Khan. Ibrahim reconciled with Jalal and accepted his authority over Kalpi.^[18]

After the death of Qadir Shah, the Kalpi Sultanate suffered severe instability and fragmentation. Wazir Mubarak Khan bin Junaid Khan relocated from Muhammadabad to Erich in 1435 (839 AH) and established firm independent authority over the district. He consolidated power by recruiting soldiers, reorganizing administration, expelling seditious elements, and fortifying the citadel. His court at Erich served as an asylum for many displaced maliks and nobles amid the regional anarchy.^[19] Soon after, Mubarak Khan pledged allegiance to Sultan Ibrahim Shah of Jaunpur, accepted his envoy, and ordered coins minted and the khutba read in the Sharqi ruler's name, openly defying Kalpi's central authority.^[20] He further strengthened his position by campaigning against local rebels. He plundered Ataura, subduing the chiefs of Kundal and Prahar, and later razing the fort of Kundal after a second rebellion.^[21] When the chief of Gwalior occupied areas near Bhander, Mubarak Khan successfully defended his territory and forced a peaceful settlement.^[22] Isma'il Khan bin Nizam Khan had also declared independence in Jathra, assuming the title of Shams-ad Duniya wa ad-din Isma'il Khan,^[23] while Nasir Khan held Rath and Mahoba.^[24]

In 1442, Nasir Khan became ruler after Jalal Khan's death. He assumed the name Nasir Shah.^[25] Accusations were spread against him of apostasy, destroying mosques, and oppressing Muslims. Jaunpur used these charges as a pretext invaded Kalpi. Mahmud Shah of Jaunpur invaded and occupied Kalpi. Nasir fled to Chanderi. Mahmud Khalji marched to support him, leading to direct confrontations near Erich, Bhander, and Kalpi. Malwa forces won several skirmishes and plundered areas. By 1444, both sides were exhausted and accepted peace. Nasir Khan was restored Muhammadabad. Mahmud Sharqi promised to never interfere in Kalpi again. Mahmud Khalji returned to Mandu, Mahmud Sharqi to Jaunpur. During this war, Mubarak Khan bin Junaid Khan had sided with Mahmud Sharqi,^[26][27] however he was accused by the locals of Erich to be oppressive,^[28] and was deposed and imprisoned by Mahmud Sharqi in 1445.^[29] Isma'il Khan had accepted the suzerainty of Mahmud Khalji of Malwa.^[30]

Nasir Khan completely became dependent of Malwa.^[31] After the death of Mahmud Khalji, his successor Ghiyath Shah adopted pacifist policy. In 1484, Bahlul Lodi captured the territories of Bayana, Hindoun and Kalpi. He conferred Kalpi on his grandson A'zam Humayun.^[32]

The malikzada family faded into obscurity after 1444. Two inscription record that Firuz Shah bin Qadir Shah's descendant, Alam Shah, had later settled at Chanderi, while Alam Shah's son Bahadur Shah constructed a well at Bari during the reign of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb.^[33][34]

After Timur's invasion in 1398, many sufis and ulama had migrated to Kalpi. Nasiruddin Mahmud developed Kalpi as a centre of culture like Delhi.^[4] He and his successors continued patronage to religious scholars and saints in the kingdom. The early sufis of Kalpi belonged to the Chishti and Suhrawardiyya silsilas followed by Zahidiyya and Madariyya. Prominent sufis were Sheikh Ahmad Thanesari, Sheikh 'Ala al-Din Quraishi and Sheikh Abu al-Fath 'Ala'i of Gwalior. Sultan Mahmud's younger brother Ahmad Khan was Ahmad Thanesari's murid and also constructed a dome over his grave inside the fort. Sheikh Abu al-Fath 'Ala'i preached sufism. He died in 1450 AD.^[35] The important Suhrawardi saints in Kalpi include Sheikh Siraj Sukhta. For his deep learning, like Qadi Shihab al-Din Daulatabadi, he was also counted among the most distinguished pupils of Maulana Nahvi. His murids included several important nobles of Kalpi and even Sultan Qadir Shah.^[36] The other important Suhrawardi saint in Kalpi was Sheikh Yusuf Buda Erachhi. He is credited with having written a number of books. His translation of Al-Ghazali's Minhaj al-‘Abidin in the form of a mathnawi consisting of two thousand five hundred and twenty verses and named the Futuhat-i Ahmad was as popular as his diwan. Like the Chishti sufis, he was also fond of listening to sama' (qawwali). In 1430 A.D. he attended a sama‘ party in which he passed into an ecstatic state. After remaining in this state of mystic intoxication for several days he died at Erich. Mahmud Shah Khalji of Malwa had a mausoleum constructed over his grave. Another Suhrawardi sufi of distinction was Shaykh 'Abd al-Hakim, popularly known as Gushanashin. He died at Kalpi in 1574.^[37] During the reign of Sultan Qadir Shah, Shaykh Baha' al-Din Ganji Rawan introduced the Zahidi silsila in Kalpi. He refused all gifts from the Sultan and nobles despite their offerings of cash, land, and orchards. Known as Ganji Rawan ("ever-flowing treasure") for freely feeding visitors at his khanqah. His spiritual reputation helped sustain the silsila after him. Shaykh Badi' al-Din, popularly known as Shah Madar, founded the Madariyya silsila in India. A Syrian sufi of Jewish descent, he converted to Islam and became a disciple of SheikhTaifur Shami. He mastered Ibn al-A'rabi's Wahdat al-Wujud philosophy along with Jewish mysticism and Christian mysticism. He came to Kalpi during the reign of Qadir Shah and is highly regarded for his piety, eloquence, and miracles.^[38]

• Chandelas of Jejakabhukti
• Kingdom of Kampili
• Kherla kingdom