Machilipatnam

Early history

Ancient geographical sources place the coast around present-day Machilipatnam within a region called Masalia or Maisolia. The first-century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes Masalia as a region extending inland and producing large quantities of cotton cloth. Ptolemy's second-century Geography likewise refers to Maisolia. Modern scholarship places Masalia or Maisolia around the mouth of the Krishna River, including the area of present-day Machilipatnam.^[13][14]

The lower Krishna was an active maritime region during the early centuries CE. The Periplus names Kontakosylla, generally identified with Ghantasala, and another port called Allosygne within Masalia. An inscription from Ghantasala records a mahanavika, or master mariner, and classical geographical accounts place in the same region a departure point for ships sailing across the Bay of Bengal towards Southeast Asia.^[13] Archaeological and epigraphic evidence from the Krishna delta indicates that settlements along the river and coast participated in wider networks of trade during this period.

Political activity in the lower Krishna is recorded more directly in the third century CE. The Kondamudi copper plates of the Brihatphalāyana ruler Jayavarman were issued from Kūdūra and record a grant of the village Pāṇṭūra in the district of Kūdūrāhāra.^[15] D. C. Sircar identified Kūdūra with modern Guduru, near Machilipatnam, while other historians have proposed Koduru near Ghantasala.^[16]

Evidence from Machilipatnam itself becomes clearer in the medieval period. Three inscriptions recorded on a pillar of the Ramalinga temple in Robertsonpet dated from the 12th century, while an inscription dated 1397 in a temple within the fort recorded a private grant.^[17] In 1478 the army of the Bahmani ruler Muhammad Shah III reached and occupied Masulipatnam as Bahmani power expanded into the lower Krishna region.^[17]

During the early 16th century, the Krishna coast lay between the competing spheres of the Gajapati Empire, the Vijayanagara Empire and the emerging Qutb Shahi state of Golconda. Krishnadevaraya's campaigns brought Vijayanagara into the Krishna delta, including the capture of Kondavidu in 1515 and Kondapalli soon afterwards. Control of the coast remained contested during the following decades as Golconda expanded eastwards.

Rise of Masulipatnam

By the middle of the 16th century, Masulipatnam was participating in the textile trade of the northern Coromandel coast but had not yet become its principal port. Around 1550 it supplied textiles to the larger commercial centre at Pulicat. Its position changed rapidly after about 1570, when the consolidation of the Golconda Sultanate under Ibrahim Qutb Shah coincided with the expansion of a network of ports around the Bay of Bengal that operated substantially outside Portuguese control.^[18]

By the early 1580s, merchants sailing from Masulipatnam had developed substantial connections with Pegu in lower Burma and the Aceh Sultanate in Sumatra. Muslim merchants owned and operated ships from the port without Portuguese cartaz passes and generally avoided Portuguese-controlled Malacca. Masulipatnam consequently became one of the principal ports in a Bay of Bengal trading system linking the Deccan with Southeast Asia.^[18]

By about 1590 its connections had also expanded westwards. Ships from Masulipatnam sailed towards the Red Sea, carrying merchandise as well as Muslim pilgrims travelling on the Hajj. The port's commercial networks thus stretched from Southeast Asia to the western Indian Ocean by the end of the century.^[18]

Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

Masulipatnam developed into Golconda's principal seaport during the 17th century. Cotton textiles produced in the northern Coromandel and the Godavari Delta passed through the port for export, while silver and other imports moved inland towards Golconda and Hyderabad. The customs and textile trades of Masulipatnam contributed substantially to the prosperity of the Qutb Shahi state during the 1620s and 1630s.^[19]

The expanding trade attracted merchants from across the Indian Ocean as well as European chartered companies. The Dutch East India Company established itself at Masulipatnam in the early 17th century, and the English East India Company founded a settlement there in 1611.^[20] The English settlement served as the company's principal base on this part of the east coast until its operations increasingly shifted towards Madras after 1640. Dutch and English merchants entered commercial networks already operated by Indian, Persian, Armenian and other Asian merchants.

Masulipatnam's relative position weakened later in the century as commerce increasingly shifted towards Madras and political conditions within Golconda changed. The Mughal conquest of Golconda in 1687 further disrupted the commercial and political connections linking the port with the Deccan interior, although the decline had begun before the conquest.^[21] Masulipatnam nevertheless remained an important regional port into the 18th century.

The town became a contested possession during the struggles involving the Nizam of Hyderabad, the French and the British in the Northern Circars. During the Carnatic Wars, French forces controlled Masulipatnam until East India Company troops commanded by Francis Forde captured it in the Siege of Masulipatam in April 1759. On 14 May, Salabat Jung granted the Company the Circar of Masulipatam and eight associated districts, along with the Circar of Nizampatam, and agreed to exclude French forces from his territories.^[22]

Dutch cemetery and VOC community

The Dutch cemetery at Masulipatam preserves inscriptions documenting the personnel and families of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) establishment on the northern Coromandel Coast. The Dutch residential quarter was historically known as Hollandpalem, later Valandupalem, while the former Dutch council house survived in the compound of the District Munsiff's Court. The cemetery contained numerous armorial tombstones carved in local stone, and some earlier burials were associated with the former factory and council-house compound.^[23]

The earliest recorded cemetery inscription in the catalogue is that of Johannes Nantius of Middelburg, a junior merchant who died in 1646. In 1662 Evert Everman of Bremen, skipper of the VOC ship Pegu, was buried there; his stone depicted him in contemporary dress with a sword. A particularly important inscription is that of Pieter Smit, who died in 1677 aged 39. Born at Tayouan in Formosa, Smit had become a senior merchant, second-ranking official in the Coromandel government and chief of the Masulipatam factory and its dependencies. His career illustrates the movement of VOC officials between the Company's Asian possessions.^[23]

The same year saw the burial of Abraham Florisse Bolwerck of Elbing, who served as a kranckbesoecker, a lay religious functionary responsible for visiting and consoling the sick. Johannes Huysman was recorded by 1682 as a merchant and second-ranking officer of the Masulipatam factory, while Marten van den Briel served as a junior merchant and administrator of the spice warehouse. Such inscriptions provide evidence for the commercial, administrative and religious organisation of the VOC settlement rather than merely recording individual deaths.^[23]

A large family monument records a concentrated series of deaths in 1687 connected with Jacob Corbesier, a Utrecht-born senior merchant selected as second-ranking official by the Governor of Pulicat. Among those commemorated were his wife Margarieta Booms, members of the Frontenius family and Willem Frontenius of Pulicat, a Company assistant who drowned while travelling between Masulipatam and Palakollu. The catalogue notes that records of Fort St. George reported a major contagion at Masulipatam in 1687 and associates this epidemic context with several deaths commemorated on the monument.^[23]

By the eighteenth century, Masulipatam continued to function as an administrative centre for the VOC's northern Coromandel establishments. Paulus Verryn, who died there in 1725, was a senior merchant, second-ranking official of the Coromandel government and chief of the northern district. Later inscriptions describe Gosewyn Maire in similar terms as senior merchant, chief of the northern district and second-ranking official of the whole Coromandel Coast. The cemetery therefore records the development of Masulipatam from an early VOC factory into an important administrative centre linking Pulicat, the Godavari factories, Nagapattinam, Ceylon and other parts of the Company's Asian network.^[23]

British rule

Masulipatnam became an administrative centre under East India Company rule. A chief and council initially administered the division from the town, and in 1794 a collector responsible to the Madras Board of Revenue was appointed there.^[24] The surrounding district was known as Masulipatnam district before being reorganised and renamed Krishna district in 1859, with Masulipatnam remaining its headquarters.^[25]

On 1 November 1864, a severe cyclone and storm surge devastated Masulipatnam and the neighbouring coast. Contemporary accounts described much of the town as destroyed, and the death toll was later estimated at about 30,000.^[17] The disaster severely damaged the port and became one of the most destructive cyclones recorded on the Andhra coast.

The city's commercial importance declined during the colonial period as larger ports and railway-connected commercial centres developed elsewhere, but it continued to serve as the administrative centre of Krishna district. Its population grew from about 36,000 in 1871 to nearly 40,000 by 1901.

Twentieth century

During the early 20th century, Machilipatnam became an important centre of Telugu journalism, national education and political activity. Krishna Patrika began publication there in 1902 and developed into an influential Telugu nationalist newspaper, particularly during the long editorship of Mutnuri Krishna Rao.^[26]

The Swadeshi movement also stimulated the development of national education in the city. Local leaders including Kopalle Hanumantha Rao, Mutnuri Krishna Rao and Bhogaraju Pattabhi Sitaramayya were associated with the creation of the Andhra Jateeya Kalasala. The institution combined literary and scientific education with vocational and artistic training and became closely associated with the nationalist movement in coastal Andhra.^[27]

Machilipatnam also became the birthplace of a major regional financial institution. Pattabhi Sitaramayya established Andhra Bank in the city in 1923, with financial backing from Raja Yarlagadda Sivarama Prasad. The bank commenced business on 28 November 1923 and later expanded across India before its nationalisation in 1980.^[28]

The city remained involved in the independence movement during the 1940s. On 28 July 1942, presidents and secretaries of the district Congress committees in Andhra met secretly at Machilipatnam under the chairmanship of Pattabhi Sitaramayya. The meeting preceded the circulation of the programme generally known as the Andhra Circular or Kurnool Circular for the coming Quit India Movement.^[29] Student protests followed the arrest of Congress leaders in August, including demonstrations and confrontations with police in Machilipatnam.^[29]

After independence, Machilipatnam continued as the headquarters of Krishna district. It became part of Andhra State in 1953 and of Andhra Pradesh following the reorganisation of the state in 1956. Its role increasingly centred on district administration, education, local industry and services as the larger inland city of Vijayawada developed into the region's principal commercial centre.

Cyclones remained a recurring influence on the coastal city. On 9 May 1990, a super cyclonic storm crossed the Andhra coast about 40 kilometres (25 mi) southwest of Machilipatnam. The India Meteorological Department estimated maximum winds of about 235 kilometres per hour (146 mph) and a storm surge of four to five metres near landfall.^[30]

Climate

Machilipatnam (city) gets most of its annual rainfall due to the southwest monsoon. It has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification Aw) with hot summers and moderate winters. The hottest months are between April and June. The average normal rainfall in the district is 959 millimetres (37.8 in) and Machilipatnam is vulnerable to high surges of the sea due to cyclones. The 1864 Machilipatnam Cyclone claimed to have killed at least 30,000 people. The 1977 Andhra Pradesh cyclone crossed the coast near Nizampatnam and took approximately 10,000 lives. As the storm approached the coast, gale winds reaching 200 km/h (120 mph) lashed Prakasam, Guntur, Krishna, East Godavari and West Godavari districts. A 5-metre-high (16 ft) storm surge inundated the Krishna estuary and the coast south of the city (Bandar).

On 8 December 2004, a high capacity S-Band Doppler cyclone warning radar was installed, commissioned and made operational at the city^[33] by the German manufacturer Gematronik. With the installation of the radar, it is hoped the state will be better equipped to track cyclones. The facility will monitor the 960 km (600 mi) long coastline of the state.^[34]

Civic administration

Machilipatnam Municipal Corporation is the civic body of the city. It was constituted as a municipality in 1866 and was upgraded to corporation from special grade municipality on 9 December 2015.^[39][40] It covers an area of 26.67 km² (10.30 sq mi) under its jurisdiction. The present commissioner of the corporation is Sampath and the municipal chairperson is Motamarri Venkata Baba Prasad.^[41]

Machilipatnam Urban Development Authority is the urban planning authority, headquartered at Machilipatnam.^[42]

Politics

Machilipatnam is a part of Machilipatnam (Assembly constituency) for Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly. Kollu Ravindra is the present MLA of the constituency from the Telugu Desam Party.^[43][44] The assembly segment is also a part of Machilipatnam (Lok Sabha constituency), which was won by Balashowry Vallabhaneni of Janasena Party.^[45]

Art and handicrafts

Machilipatnam Kalamkari is a handcrafted dyed block-painting of a fabric.^[49] It is performed at the nearby town of Pedana and was registered with geographical indication from Andhra Pradesh.^[50] Machilipatnam and Srikalahasti styles are the only existing Kalamkari style works present in India.^[51]

Dance

Kuchipudi, a popular Indian Classical Dance form, originated at Kuchipudi, 25 kilometres (16 mi) from Machilipatnam.^[52]

Cuisine

The city is well known for a sweet known as Bandar Laddu and Bandar Halwa.^[53] Almond Milkshake is also largely famous in Machilipatanam which are Mostly centred in Koneru Centre. Bandar Biryani is delicious, which is made by Shia Muslims in Moharram rituals .

Religious worship

There are many religions with worship centers in and around the city, such as Panduranga Temple at Chilakalapudi, Agastheeswara Temple etc. Dattashram is a pilgrimage site on the coast and home to ancient Shiva and Datta temples. Manginapudi is popularly known as "Datta Rameswaram" due to the consecration of 12 wells for bathing (recalling those at Rameswaram).^[54]

Shia Muslims

Machilipatnam is home to the largest Shia Muslim population in the entire state of Andhra Pradesh. The city hosts more than a hundred Astanas/Imambargahs (which are places for Moharram rituals). The famous chest beating ceremonies happen on Ashura in the Koneru Centre circle, attracting thousands of mourners and visitors from other religions. There are Imambargahs that are more than 600 years old, such as the Zari Astana, Baraimam Astana, Naqla Astana, and others. The Baraimam Alam is taken out for procession through the streets of Machilipatnam, a night before Ashura. and the Krishna district police offers a dhati (cloth) to the Alam. Hundreds of Shia Muslims from Hyderabad, Chennai, Bangalore, and Visakhapatnam visit the Chehlum Astana for the 17th Safar of the Islamic calendar, where Hazrat Abbas's Arabaeen attracts thousands of mourners from across South Asia.