Makobola massacre

The Fizi Territory has been marred by persistent ethnic tensions between the Bembe people and Banyamulenge, which can be traced back to their long-standing dispute over land and resources. The Banyamulenge are predominantly pastoralists who have migrated from Rwanda in search of better grazing lands, driven by the escalating taxes imposed by Mwami Rwabugiri of the Kingdom of Rwanda, while the Bembe people are predominantly subsistence agriculturalists who have lived in the area for generations, relying on their intimate knowledge of the local terrain and farming practices passed down through their families.^[5][6] The first inter-ethnic tensions were reported as early as the mid-20th when the Belgian colonists imported workers from Ruanda-Urundi to aid their development to Kivu's highlands from the late 1920s to the 1950s. Many of these workers settled in the Fizi Territory, Uvira Territory, and Mwenga Territory, where they came into contact with the Bembe people. However, the Bembe people were wary of the newcomers and were generally hostile towards them, refusing to intermarry.^[7][8]

The Banyamulenge harbored aspirations of having their independent territory, similar to other ethnic groups, but faced resistance due to their status as immigrants without a defined territory or chieftainship before colonization.^[7][8] In 1972, Barthélémy Bisengimana Rwema, a Munyamulenge cabinet director of Mobutu Sese Seko during his second republic, implemented a presidential decree known as "Ordinance № 69-096". This regulation collectively conferred Zairean nationality and property rights to Banyamulenge businessmen, politicians, and Tutsi notables, which was a significant turning point in their struggle for recognition. Nonetheless, the constitutionality of this measure was called into question after Rwema's death due to its nonconformity with fundamental criteria. The act was perceived as an expropriation of land by other Congolese ethnic groups, which further intensified the social and political tensions in the region and deepened the collective unconscious of other Congolese ethnic groups who were resentful towards Tutsis from elsewhere.^[9][10] The 1980s witnessed the intensification of frictions and disputes regarding the citizenship status of Banyamulenge. The exclusion of their candidates from the 1982 and 1987 elections under the pretext of nationalité douteuse (doubtful citizenship) sparked widespread animosity. Furthermore, the Congolese government organized a census in 1991, explicitly aimed at identifying Congolese citizens, which was discriminatory against Hutu and Tutsi populations. This census led to widespread social unrest, causing deep divisions and polarization within the Congolese society.^[11]

During the Second Congo War, the once-formidable alliance between Rwanda, Uganda, and the Congolese government disintegrated in 1998 when Laurent Désiré Kabila attempted to assert his independence from his former allies. This decision did not bode well with Rwanda and Uganda, who regarded Kabila as an impediment to their regional interests.

The Kabila's government was accused of excluding Tutsis from political representation, allegedly due to ethnic tensions and suspicions that Tutsis were aligned with Rwanda's interests rather than those of the DRC. Kabila perceived the Tutsis as a potential threat to his regime and therefore aimed to consolidate his power by marginalizing them. In response, Tutsi opposition leaders founded the Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) with the aim of toppling his government.^[12][13] Furthermore, Rwanda and Uganda's hunger for natural resources in the eastern part of the DRC presented an economic opportunity, but the Kabila administration hindered their aspirations for financial gain.^{[14][15][16][12][17]}

In response to the RCD rebels, numerous militant factions, such as the Maï Maï, gained extensive support from the "indigenous" populace and the Kabila government, leading them to rise up against the RCD. Composed of diverse ethnic and regional groups, the Mai-Mai organizations initially prioritized safeguarding their local communities from external forces, including the RCD and its allies, Rwanda and Uganda. The local population has been targeted by violence, ranging from brutal physical assaults to savage massacres such as that of Makobola in I'amba Basilwamba village.^[12]

The attack took place in the village of Makobola, predominantly inhabited by the Bembe people, roughly 15 kilometers south of Uvira on the border of the Fizi and Uvira territories in the eastern region of the DRC. According to reports from both the Rome-based Roman Catholic Missionary News Service and the Los Angeles Times in January 1999, RCD forces arrived in Makobola on New Year's Day and launched an indiscriminate killing spree against the local population.^[18][19]

Eyewitnesses and survivors reported that the soldiers attacked the village and its inhabitants using a variety of weapons, including guns, machetes, and other sharp objects. The RCD forces went on a rampage, killing men, women, and children indiscriminately.^[19][2]

Many of the victims were hacked to death with machetes or shot at close range, while others were burned alive or drowned in nearby rivers. The soldiers threw babies and small children into deep pit latrines, where they were left to die, and shot adults who disobeyed orders to enter a house and instead tried to escape. In addition to the human toll, the assailants also destroyed homes and other property in the village. Buildings were burned or looted, and livestock and crops were stolen or killed. The attack was believed to have been carried out as a retaliatory measure against an earlier attack by Mai-Mai fighters, who had infiltrated the Uvira region from Fizi and averted the RCD rebels from gaining access to a new position near the village of Makobola II. As a retaliatory measure, rebel reinforcements were hastily dispatched from Uvira to Makobola. Upon arrival, they unleashed a wave of violence upon the local population, while the Mai-Mai soldiers were able to escape into the surrounding forests.^[2][4][20]