Mau movement in American Samoa

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The Mau movement in American Samoa or American Samoa Mau (Samoan: O le Mau), was an anti-colonial movement^[1] and an independence movement formed in American Samoa in the 1920s, which was suppressed by the United States.^[2] Established in late 1919^[3] or early 1920, it aimed to challenge the overreach of the U.S. Navy's authority.^[4]

The Mau movement has also been known in American Samoa by several other names, including The Committee of Samoan Chiefs, The Samoan Movement, The Samoan Cause,^[5]^[6] The Samoan League,^[7] and The Committee of the Samoan League.^[8]

After revelations surfaced that U.S. officials had misappropriated public funds, prominent Samoan figures — supported by those who opposed the U.S. Navy's influence — mounted the widespread protest known as the Mau movement. They initiated a boycott of copra, a critical revenue source, effectively crippling the U.S. naval administration.^[9] In 1920, copra production dropped to half its 1919 level — a decline attributed to the boycott, which brought copra cutting, roadwork, and most commercial activities to a standstill.^[10]

Launched under the guidance of Mauga Moi Moi, the highest-ranking chief in Pago Pago, the movement took shape through his influential leadership.^[11]^[12] When Samuel Sailele Ripley returned to Leone in July 1920, he became the leader of the Mau movement.^[13]^[14] Following Mauga Moi Moi's death in 1935, Governor Otto Dowling asserted that the Mau movement had come to an end.^[15]

The movement originally took shape in Pago Pago, then evolved and moved its headquarters from Pago Pago to Leone, and eventually settled in Nuʻuuli.^[16] The leadership of the movement changed over time, featuring prominent figures such as Mauga Moi Moi from Pago Pago, Samuel Sailele Ripley from Leone,^[17]^[18] Magalei Siāsulu from Faleniu,^[19] and Chris Taliutafa Young, a descendant of Tui Manuʻa Matelita.^[20] Most of its followers were based in the Western District on Tutuila Island.^[21]

In the end, the Mau movement in American Samoa turned out to be less violent and extensive than the Mau movement in Western Samoa.^[22]^[23]^[24]

Opposition to colonial domination in Samoa predated 1920. Once the eastern islands came under U.S. authority, Samoans grappled with safeguarding their cultural, economic, and political autonomy. Moreover, disputes regarding fair wages for construction work played a significant role in igniting the Mau movement.^[25]

In 1902, discontent over the copra levy began among Tutuilans, especially in the Western District and Tuālāuta County — an area that would later play a pivotal role in the Mau movement. Seeking to quash this resistance, Governor Uriel Sebree imprisoned three local leaders and removed a Samoan judge who had lodged a formal complaint with the U.S. Navy. Sebree went on to characterize Samoans as “grown-up children who love form and ceremony.” By 1904, chiefs from both the Western and Eastern Districts met in official assemblies, urging the reduction of the copra tax and demanding accountability for how the funds were spent. Demonstrating unity, they undertook a malaga — traveling between Pago Pago and Leone — to collectively press their grievances.^[26]

Between June 1919 and November 1920, Governor Warren Terhune faced widespread disapproval, and his governing style and decisions significantly contributed to the emergence of the Mau movement.^[27] A.M. Noble was the chief architect of racist policies in American Samoa during the 1920s. Locally, Samoans referred to him as one of the “three white mice” - a nickname for three white supremacists in the Terhune administration.^[28]

Formation

In 1920, Mauga Moi Moi initiated the Mau movement.^[29] The movement began when Mauga Moi Moi raised concerns about the colony's financial management, disrespect towards chiefs, the disparity in pay between Fita Fita guards and U.S. naval personnel, the protection of Samoan women, and numerous other issues. Due to his vigorous opposition to the U.S. Navy and its administration, the movement was also referred to as “The Mauga’s Mau.”^[30]

In February 1920, Mauga Moi Moi's leadership ignited the Mau movement when he questioned A. M. Noble’s and Luther Cartwright’s suitability under U.S. Navy authority. Although Noble justified that year's six-cent-per-pound copra rate as the highest on record, Police Officer Ta‘amu voiced concerns that the inflated price suggested government misuse of Samoan resources. These suspicions hinted at inconsistencies stretching back to 1919 or earlier. Commandant Uriel Sebree had previously noted local mistrust of copra taxes, particularly when imposed by foreign administrators. Allegations arose that Noble spoke disparagingly about the Samoan people. Tensions escalated by February 1920, with Mauga demanding Noble's dismissal and even threatening force against him.^[31]

In June 1920, escalating tensions reached a peak at a fono meeting convened in Pago Pago. Chief Sātele Itulā and Mauga Moi Moi — both of whom had clashed with Noble — called into question how malaga funds were being used. Over several days, Samoans came by land and sea, some carrying weapons and others bringing ceremonial items like tapa cloth. Mauga declared that legislative power belonged exclusively to the Samoan chiefs, presenting a direct challenge to U.S. governance. Governor Warren Terhune tried unsuccessfully to ban all fono (assembly). Recognizing the seriousness of the confrontation, Noble viewed this moment as a defining act of collective Samoan defiance against American rule.

Key figures

Some key figures of the Mau movement in American Samoa were:^[32]

Samuel Sailele Ripley, leader of the movement. Deported, barred and exiled from American Samoa due to his involvement in the Mau movement. He later became the mayor of Richmond, California.
Mauga Moi Moi, Pago Pago’s highest-ranking chief. Spurred by Mauga Moi Moi, the Mau movement came into being under his leadership. After his passing in 1935, Governor Otto Dowling claimed this was the end of the Mau movement.^[33]^[34]
Magalei Siāsulu of Faleniu, one of the Mau movement’s leaders.^[35]
Chris Taliutafa Young, descendent of Tui Manu'a Matelita and one of the Mau movement’s leaders.^[36]^[37]
Ned Ripley, brother of Samuel Sailele Ripley, organized Mau meetings.^[38]
Nelesoni Tuitele of Leone, testified in favor of the Mau movement and sided with Samuel Sailele Ripley and Arthur A. Greene. Nelsoni read Greene’s anti-administration articles into the record of the Bingham Commission’s hearings.^[39]
Chief Soliai of Nuʻuuli.
Chief Galea'i of Fitiua.^[40]
Creed H. Boucher, Lieutenant Commander, executive officer of Governor Warren Terhune. Supported the movement and was arrested and deported.^[41]
Arthur C. Kail, replaced Creed H. Boucher and was supportive of the Mau movement. Found guilty of abetting Creed H. Boucher in activities, which “bordered on sedition”.^[42]
Madge A. Ripley, wife of Samuel Sailele Ripley. Wrote letters to First Lady Florence Harding and addressed women's clubs and organizations in California, encouraging their members to protest the U.S. Naval Administration's actions in Samoa.^[43]
C.S. Hannum, Madge A. Ripley's employer in California who functioned as the movement's legal counsel.^[44]
Helen Wilson, sister of Samuel Sailele Ripley.^[45]
Creagh, ex U.S. Navy trader who was believed by Governors Waldo A. Evans and E. T. Pollock to have instigated disorder.^[46]
Chief Fanene of Pago Pago (Bull Foster), regarded as Sam Ripley’s right-hand man.^[47]
Lemafa, Chief of Aunuʻu Island
Grace Pepe Malemo Haleck, nurse.^[48]
Arthur A. Greene, editor for the Honolulu Star-Bulletin. Claimed the Mau movement invited him to be their legal counsel, but the U.S. Navy accused him of misinforming and misleading Samoans into unrest.^[49] After his deportation in November 1920, he wrote to Senator Reed Smoot and President Calvin Coolidge.^[50]
High Chief Sātele Itulā of the Western District was removed from his role as district governor by Governor Warren Terhune. But he continued to arrange anti-U.S. Navy meetings in Nuʻuuli.^[51]
Samuel Tulele Galea’i, committee chair for the Mau movement.^[52]^[53]
The Samoan Civic Association (SCA) in Hawai’i supported the Mau movement.^[54]

Aims

U.S. response

In an effort to suppress the Mau movement, U.S. authorities adopted a containment strategy that involved co-opting certain Samoan leaders and employing various coercive measures. These tactics included the following:^[75]

Arrests. The U.S. Navy administration apprehended multiple Mau supporters, including Samuel Tulele Galea‘i,^[76] Lieutenant Commander Creed Boucher,^[77] and 100 protestors in Pago Pago in 1922.^[78] Governor Waldo A. Evans also charged seventeen of the so-called “Faleniu conspirators” with conspiracy and rebellion.^[79]
Deportations. Several Mau advocates were exiled from American Samoa, notably Samuel Sailele Ripley, Madge A. Ripley, Arthur A. Greene, Gretchen Falke Greene, and Lieutenant Commander Creed Boucher.
Restrictions on Travel to Western Samoa. To deter coordination with the Western Mau, American Samoans faced travel limitations and close surveillance. The 1903 Malaga Regulation prohibited parties of more than eight individuals from traveling from Tutuila to Upolu without prior authorization.^[80]
Deployment of U.S. Armed Forces. In 1922, Governor E. T. Pollock dispatched a landing force from the U.S.S. Ontario, comprising U.S. Marines, to suppress a protest in Pago Pago.^[81]
Restrictions on Inter-Village Travel. Governor Henry Francis Bryan enacted a ban on malagas — organized travels between villages.^[82]
Monitoring Public Gatherings. Governor Warren Terhune attempted to prohibit all fono (councils or assemblies).^[83]
Removal of Chiefs from Office. Governor Warren Terhune dismissed Mauga Moi Moi and Sātele Itulā from their roles as district governors of the Western and Eastern districts and replaced them with new appointees.^[84]
Targeting the Media. Governor Warren Terhune attributed the “virtual revolt” to a Honolulu-based newspaper.^[85] The United States Navy accused the editor of the Honolulu Star-Bulletin of inciting Samoans to protest and spreading misinformation.^[86]
Imposing Martial Law: The U.S. Naval Administration imposed martial law in order to prevent a Mau uprising.^[87]
Deployment of Fita Fita Guards. The U.S. Navy administration employed armed Fita Fita guards as a militia force to suppress dissent among Samoan chiefs.^[88]

In 1930, the United States sent a committee to American Samoa. Among its members were individuals from Hawai‘i who had previously played a significant role in the coup d'état against Queen Lili‘uokalani in the Kingdom of Hawai‘i. Their report, which favored the U.S. position, substantially influenced American policy in Samoa, leading to the decisive suppression of the Mau movement.^[89]^[90] As a result of the committee's actions, the Mau movement gradually lost momentum, though some tensions persisted.^[91]

References

↑ Droessler, Holger (2022). Coconut Colonialism: Workers and the Globalization of Samoa. Harvard University Press. Page 200. ISBN 978-0-674-26333-8.
↑ Barker, Joanne (2005). Sovereignty matters: locations of contestation and possibility in indigenous struggles for self-determination. University of Nebraska Press. Page 119. ISBN 978-0-8032-5198-4.
↑ Sunia, Fofō I. F. (1998). The Story of the Legislature of American Samoa. Legislature of American Samoa. Page 49. ISBN 9789829008015.
↑ Droessler, Holger (2022). Coconut Colonialism: Workers and the Globalization of Samoa. Harvard University Press. Page 199. ISBN 978-0-674-26333-8.
↑ Shaffer, Robert J. (2000). American Samoa: 100 Years Under the United States Flag. Island Heritage. Page 148. ISBN 978-0-89610-339-9.
↑ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 194. ISBN 978-0-87021-074-7.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 251. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 208. ISBN 978-0-87021-074-7.
↑ Droessler, Holger (2022). Coconut Colonialism: Workers and the Globalization of Samoa. Harvard University Press. Page 199. ISBN 978-0-674-26333-8.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 231. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa - History Of American Samoa And Its United States Naval Administration (1st ed.). Page 140. United States Naval Institute. ISBN 978-0-87021-074-7.
↑ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 233. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Minahan, James (2010). The complete guide to national symbols and emblems. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press. Page 10. ISBN 978-0-313-34497-8.
↑ Barker, Joanne (2005). Sovereignty matters: locations of contestation and possibility in indigenous struggles for self-determination. University of Nebraska Press. Page 119. ISBN 978-0-8032-5198-4.
↑ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 255. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 232. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Barker, Joanne (2005). Sovereignty matters: locations of contestation and possibility in indigenous struggles for self-determination. University of Nebraska Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-8032-5198-4.
↑ Minahan, James (2010). The complete guide to national symbols and emblems. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-313-34497-8.
↑ Sunia, Fofō Iosefa Fiti (2001). Puputoa: Host of Heroes - A record of the history makers in the First Century of American Samoa, 1900-2000. Suva, Fiji: Oceania Printers. Page 81. ISBN 982-9036-02-2.
↑ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 209. ISBN 978-0-87021-074-7.
↑ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa - History Of American Samoa And Its United States Naval Administration (1st ed.). Page 227. United States Naval Institute. ISBN 978-0-87021-074-7.
↑ Campbell, I. C. “Resistance and Colonial Government: A Comparative Study of Samoa.” The Journal of Pacific History 40, no. 1 (2005): p. 59. JSTOR 25169729.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 232. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Droessler, Holger (2022). Coconut Colonialism: Workers and the Globalization of Samoa. Harvard University Press. Page 200. ISBN 978-0-674-26333-8.
↑ Droessler, Holger (2022). Coconut Colonialism: Workers and the Globalization of Samoa. Harvard University Press. Pages 200-201. ISBN 978-0-674-26333-8.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Pages 228-229. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2). ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Kennedy, Joseph (2009). The Tropical Frontier: America’s South Sea Colony. University of Guam Press. ISBN 9780980033151.
↑ Lal, Brij V. and Kate Fortune (2000). The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia. University of Hawaiʻi Press. Page 101. ISBN 978-0-8248-2265-1.
↑ Armstrong, Karen (2008). “American Exceptionalism in American Samoa. Suomen Antropologi: Journal of the Finnish Anthropological Society, 33(2), page 57. ISSN 0355-3930.
↑ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 233. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Campbell, I. C. “Resistance and Colonial Government: A Comparative Study of Samoa.” The Journal of Pacific History 40, no. 1 (2005): p. 45–69. JSTOR 25169729.
↑ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 255. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa - History Of American Samoa And Its United States Naval Administration (1st ed.). Page 140. United States Naval Institute. ISBN 978-0-87021-074-7.
↑ Sunia, Fofō Iosefa Fiti (2001). Puputoa: Host of Heroes - A record of the history makers in the First Century of American Samoa, 1900-2000. Suva, Fiji: Oceania Printers. Page 81. ISBN 982-9036-02-2.
↑ Sunia, Fofō Iosefa Fiti (2001). Puputoa: Host of Heroes - A record of the history makers in the First Century of American Samoa, 1900-2000. Suva, Fiji: Oceania Printers. Page 186. ISBN 982-9036-02-2.
↑ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 209. ISBN 978-0-87021-074-7.
↑ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 202. ISBN 978-0-87021-074-7.
↑ Sunia, Fofō Iosefa Fiti (2001). Puputoa: Host of Heroes - A record of the history makers in the First Century of American Samoa, 1900-2000. Suva, Fiji: Oceania Printers. Page 172. ISBN 982-9036-02-2.
↑ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa - History Of American Samoa And Its United States Naval Administration (1st ed.). Page 228. United States Naval Institute. ISBN 978-0-87021-074-7.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2). ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2). ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa - History Of American Samoa And Its United States Naval Administration (1st ed.). Page 203. United States Naval Institute. ISBN 978-0-87021-074-7.
↑ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 239-240. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 236. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Campbell, I. C. “Resistance and Colonial Government: A Comparative Study of Samoa.” The Journal of Pacific History 40, no. 1 (2005): p. 61. JSTOR 25169729.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 249. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Droessler, Holger (2022). Coconut Colonialism: Workers and the Globalization of Samoa. Harvard University Press. Page 200. ISBN 978-0-674-26333-8.
↑ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 236. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 199. ISBN 978-0-87021-074-7.
↑ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 238. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 251. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Sunia, Fofō I. F. (1998). The Story of the Legislature of American Samoa. Legislature of American Samoa. Page 48. ISBN 978-982-9008-01-5.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 252. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2). ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 233. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 233. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Droessler, Holger (2022). Coconut Colonialism: Workers and the Globalization of Samoa. Harvard University Press. Pages 200-201. ISBN 978-0-674-26333-8.
↑ Field, Michael (1991). Mau: Samoa’s Struggle for Freedom. Polynesian Press. Page 105. ISBN 978-0-908597-07-9.
↑ Sunia, Fofo I.F. (2009). A History of American Samoa. Amerika Samoa Humanities Council. Page 204. ISBN 978-1-57306-299-2.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Pages 242-245. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 245. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Pages 242-245. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Pages 239-240. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Droessler, Holger (2022). Coconut Colonialism: Workers and the Globalization of Samoa. Harvard University Press. Page 199. ISBN 978-0-674-26333-8.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 244. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Pages 239-240. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Pages 239-240. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 202. ISBN 978-0-87021-074-7.
↑ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 236. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 251. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Field, Michael (1991). Mau: Samoa’s Struggle for Freedom. Polynesian Press. Page 105. ISBN 978-0-908597-07-9.
↑ Sunia, Fofo I.F. (2009). A History of American Samoa. Amerika Samoa Humanities Council. Page 204. ISBN 978-1-57306-299-2.
↑ Sunia, Fofō Iosefa Fiti (2001). Puputoa: Host of Heroes - A record of the history makers in the First Century of American Samoa, 1900-2000. Suva, Fiji: Oceania Printers. Page 81. ISBN 982-9036-02-2.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2). ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 251. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 238. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 245. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 241. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 154. ISBN 978-0-87021-074-7.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 245. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Sunia, Fofō Iosefa Fiti (2001). Puputoa: Host of Heroes - A record of the history makers in the First Century of American Samoa, 1900-2000. Suva, Fiji: Oceania Printers. Pages 18-19. ISBN 982-9036-02-2.
↑ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 233. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 197. ISBN 978-0-87021-074-7.
↑ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 235. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 236. ISSN 0030-8684.
↑ Wei, Deborah (1998). Resistance in Paradise: Rethinking 100 Years of U.S. Involvement in the Caribbean and the Pacific. American Friends Service Committee. Page 91. ISBN 978-0-910082-33-4.
↑ Armstrong, Karen (2008). “American Exceptionalism in American Samoa. Suomen Antropologi: Journal of the Finnish Anthropological Society, 33(2), page 57. ISSN 0355-3930.
↑ Minahan, James (2010). The complete guide to national symbols and emblems. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press. Page 10. ISBN 978-0-313-34497-8.
↑ Campbell, I. C. “Chiefs, Agitators and the Navy: The Mau in American Samoa, 1920—29.” The Journal of Pacific History 44, no. 1 (2009): 41–60. JSTOR 40346687.
↑ West, Francis James (1961). Political Advancement in the South Pacific: A Comparative Study of Colonial Practice in Fiji, Tahiti, and American Samoa. Oxford University Press. Page 135. ISBN 9780598463326.

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