Military history of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
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The military history of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms covers the period of Chinese history from the collapse of the Tang dynasty in 907 to the demise of Northern Han in 979. This period of Chinese history is noteworthy for the introduction of gunpowder weapons and as a transitional phase from the aristocratic imperial system to the Confucian bureaucracy which characterized the Song, Ming, and Qing dynasties.
Later Liang (907–923)
The Later Liang dynasty was founded by Zhu Wen. Zhu Wen was originally a rebel during the Huang Chao rebellion but later surrendered to the Tang dynasty and served under the military commander Li Keyong. In 904, Zhu Wen kidnapped Emperor Zhaozong of Tang, took him to Luoyang, and killed him. Three years later he also disposed of Emperor Ai of Tang, ending the Tang dynasty, and proclaimed his own dynasty of Liang. Zhu Wen undertook several military campaigns and failed in all of them. Despite lowering taxes to win support of the common folk, he is remembered in history as a brutal and ruthless tyrant. Zhu Wen was killed by his own son in 912, who was in turn killed by his brother a year later. The last ruler of Later Liang, Zhu Youzhen, ruled until 923 when Li Keyong's son Li Cunxu conquered the Liang capital Kaifeng.[1]
Jin/Later Tang (883–936)
The Later Tang was originally Jin under Li Keyong, a Tang military commander of Shatuo descent. When Li Keyong died in 908, his son Li Cunxu picked up where his father left off, conquering Yan in 913 and eventually also Later Liang in 923, at which point he proclaimed the new Tang dynasty. The state of Qi submitted to Later Tang in 923. In 925, Later Tang conquered Former Shu. Li Cunxu was killed in the next year during a rebellion by one of his officers, and his adopted son Li Siyuan succeeded him. In 936, Li Cunxu's son-in-law, Shi Jingtang, rebelled with the aid of the Khitans and overthrew Later Tang, forming his own Later Jin dynasty.[1]
Later Jin (937–947)
In return for their aid in toppling the Later Tang dynasty, Shi Jingtang turned over Sixteen Prefectures to the Khitans. After Shi Jingtang died in 942, Jing Yanguang took over government affairs for the young emperor Shi Chonggui. Jing Yanguang offended the Khitans, who invaded Later Jin in 945. The Jin General Fu Yanqing went out to meet them. The Khitans set fire to the land with blowing towards the Jin in order to force them into combat, but the Jin under Fu Yanqing had already advanced on the Khitan position and pinned them with infantry. A contingent of Shatuo cavalry attacked the Khitans in the flank and routed them. In 947 the Khitans invaded again and sacked Kaifeng, ending the dynasty. However the Khitan army met heavy opposition from the locals, forcing them to forage for food. Seeing that the conditions did not favor outright conquest, the Khitans retreated north, proclaiming their own Liao dynasty. The power vacuum left in their wake was filled by Liu Zhiyuan, who proclaimed himself Emperor of Han.[1]
Later Han (947–951)
The Later Han dynasty was founded by Liu Zhiyuan in 947. He died the following year and his son Liu Chengyou was overthrown by Guo Wei in 951.[1]
Later Zhou (951–960)
Guo Wei founded Later Zhou in 951. Guo Wei spent his short lived reign implementing reforms to lessen the burdens of the common folk. He also launched campaigns against Northern Han twice, in 952 and 954, but was thwarted both times by the Liao dynasty. He died in 954. His successor and adopted son, Chai Rong, launched a campaign against Buddhism. In 955, Later Zhou invaded Southern Tang and forced it to cede 14 prefectures as well as forced the aggressive Later Shu in the west to back off. Chai Rong attempted to invade the Liao dynasty in 959, but fell ill and died on campaign. His son Guo Zongxun was usurped by Zhao Kuangyin (Emperor Taizu of Song) in 960, thus ending the Five Dynasties.[1]
Ten Kingdoms
Former Shu (907–925)
Wang Jian was a regional inspector of Bizhou. In 891 he occupied Chengdu. By 902, he had conquered region of Hanzhong. In 907, Wang declared himself emperor of Shu (Former Shu) and began expanding the territory of his dominion in the north. Wang Jian's son and successor, Wang Yan (r. 918–925), squandered his father's achievements and spent enormous resources on building palaces while the heir apparent, Wang Yuanying, was killed in a fight. In 925, Wang Yan was captured by Later Tang and killed. His territory was left in the care of jiedushi Meng Zhixiang, who went on to found Later Shu.[2]
Later Shu (934–965)
The former territory of Former Shu was overseen by jiedushi Meng Zhixiang, who asserted his independence in 932 by killing the jiedushi of Dongchuan, Dong Zhang, thereby conquering all of Sichuan. He declared himself emperor in 934 and died immediately afterwards. When the Khitans destroyed the Later Jin in 946, Later Shu occupied three prefectures to the north. Meng Zhixiang's successor, Meng Chang, also expanded to the northwest but lost all his gains to Later Zhou in 955. In 965, Meng Chang surrendered to the Song dynasty.[3]
Yang Wu (907–937)
Yang Xingmi, born in 852, was a man of common origin. As a regional inspector of Luzhou, Yang displayed military talent during several campaigns against various warlords such as Gao Pian, Qin Yan, Bi Shiduo, and Sun Ru. In 892, Yang was promoted to jiedushi of Huainan. He engaged in several campaigns with Later Liang in the north and Wuyue in the southeast, expanding his territory considerably. He is also one of the first people recorded to have (possibly) used gunpowder in warfare. In 902, Yang became Pring of Wu, and died three years later.[4]
His son and successor, Yang Wo, was controlled by the generals Zhang Hao and Xu Wen, who murdered him in 908. Xu Wen then killed Zhang Hao and became de facto ruler, enthroning Yang Longyan in 919. Xu Wen's foster son, Xu Zhigao, deposed Yang Longyan's successor, Yang Pu, in 937 and founded the state of Southern Tang (937–976), originally Great Qi.[4]
Southern Tang (937–976)
When Xu Zhigao deposed Yang Pu in 937, he originally declared his state that of the Great Qi. A year later he renamed it Tang (Southern Tang). Xu also renamed himself to Li Bian. Li Bian's rule was characterized by peaceful diplomacy, favoring trade rather than war. Li instituted the Taixue and carried out state examinations to select competent officials. His son, Li Jing (r. 943–960), invaded Min in 945 and annexed its western territories while Wuyue took the northern parts, and Liu Congxiao was appointed jiedushi of the remaining territory. In 951, Southern Tang invaded Ma Chu and annexed the majority of its territory, with remnants surviving under the Wuping Jiedushi. In 955, Later Zhou invaded Southern Tang and forced it to cede 14 prefectures. Li Jing's son, Li Yu (r. 961–975), was uninterested in politics and spent his time writing poetry, practicing calligraphy, and playing musical instruments. In 976, the Song dynasty annexed Southern Tang.[5]
Wuyue (907–978)
In 893, Qian Liu became jiedushi of Haijun. As jiedushi, Qian Liu defeated Dong Chang, the surveillance commissioner of Yuèzhōu, who planned on declaring himself emperor. For his victory, Qian was awarded the posts of jiedushi of Zhenhai and Donghai as well. In 907, Qian Liu proclaimed himself Prince of Wuyue and moved his capital to Hangzhou. Wuyue was a militarily weak state that thrived on producing silk, paper, and porcelain. They accepted the suzerainty of Later Liang and its successors. In 940, Wuyue invaded Min but was defeated. In 946, Wuyue succeeded in invading Min and conquered its capital of Fuzhou. In 978, the last ruler of Wuyue, Qian Chu, surrendered to the Song dynasty.[6]
Min (909–945)
Min was founded by the rebels Wang Chao and Wang Shenzhi, who conquered Quanzhou in 886 and Fuzhou in 893. In 909, Wang Shenzhi became Prince of Min. Situated in a political and economic backwater, the rulers of Min tried to attract scholars to build an effective administration, but fell into familial bickering and ended up being destroyed by the Southern Tang in 945. The jiedushi of Qingyuan (Quanzhou) however continued to rule independently until the area was conquered by the Song dynasty in 978.[7]
Southern Han (917–971)
Southern Han was founded by the brothers Liu Yin and Liu Yan. Liu Yin's father, Liu Qian, was the regional inspector of Fengzhou. When he died, Liu Yin succeeded his post, and was made jiedushi of Qinghai in 905. When the Tang dynasty collapsed in 907, the Liu brothers took in refugees from the north and used them to establish an independent realm. Liu Yin died in 911 and his brother succeeded him. Liu Yan proclaimed the Great Yue in 917, but then changed the name to Han a year later. Southern Han invaded Annan in 930 and removed the Khúc clan from power. The Southern Han general Liang Kezhen raided Champa's capital, Indrapura, but the Southern Han themselves were defeated by Dương Đình Nghệ a year later. In 937, Kiều Công Tiễn killed Dương Đình Nghệ and called Southern Han into a war against rebels to the south, however Đình Nghệ's son-in-law Ngô Quyền murdered Công Tiễn and defeated the Southern Han fleet at the Battle of Bạch Đằng in 938.[8] In 948, Southern Han invaded Ma Chu, taking 10 prefectures. During the reign of Liu Chang (958–971), the court was dominated by eunuchs, and the state fell into decline. The Southern Han army kept a permanent corps of war elephants. When the Song dynasty invaded in 970, their crossbowmen readily routed the Southern Han elephants. This was the last time elephants were used in Chinese warfare.[9][10] In 971, Liu Chang surrendered to the Song dynasty. The state of Southern Han was characterized by a civilian government that organized state examinations to recruit officials, but it also taxed its common folks harshly to build palace complexes such as the Zhaoyang Hall with its golden roof.[11]
Jingnan (924–963)
Gao Jixing was a servant under the army of Zhu Wen. When he was made jiedushi of Jingnan, he began plotting to claim his independence. When Later Liang was destroyed by Later Tang in 923, Gao was made Prince of Nanping, where he increased his territory by a modest amount. The state of Jingnan was small and weak, paying obeisance to stronger states north and south. Gao Jixing's successor, Gao Conghui, was known as "Gao the Unreliable" for sending tribute missions to various realms both north and south. Jingnan was conquered by the Song dynasty in 963.[12]
Ma Chu (926–951)
Ma Chu was founded by an officer by the name of Ma Yin who served under the generals Sun Ru and Liu Jianfeng. When Liu Jianfeng died in 896, the Tang court made Ma Yin the jiedushi of Hunan. After the collapse of the Tang in 907, Ma Yin was made Prince of Chu, a vassal of the northern dynasties. Under the reign of Ma Yin, Chu remained at peace with neighboring powers and traded tea. Ma Chu was conquered by the Southern Tang in 951.[13]
Northern Han (948–979)
Northern Han was founded by Liu Chong, a Shatuo Turk, the jiedushi of Hedong Circuit and Taiyuan. In 951, Guo Wei rebelled and defeated Emperor Yin of Later Han. He then killed Liu Chong's son, Liu Yun, and proclaimed the Later Zhou, leaving Liu Chong as emperor of Northern Han. Northern Han forged an alliance with the Khitan Liao dynasty and participated in an invasion of Later Zhou, but was defeated and besieged by Zhou forces at Taiyuan for more than a month. In 979, the Song dynasty annexed Northern Han.[14]
Other states
Liu Shouguang's Yan was conquered by Later Tang in 913.[15]
Li Maozhen's Qi submitted to Later Tang in 923.[16]
