Molla Abdulkahhar

Abdulkahhar was born in 1884 in Gijduvon, a town within the Russian Empire.^[1][2][3] He graduated from the Po-i-Kalyan Madrasah in Bukhara. Among his people, he was called "Molla," a title for a religiously educated figure.^[1] Abdulkahhar's first appearance on the battlefield was in 1920, in Eastern Bukhara against the Soviets.^[1][2]

In Western Bukhara, the Basmachi movement was also growing, and by late 1921, all the provinces of Western Bukhara were administered by Basmachis commanders Abdulkahhar^[4][5][6] and Faizul Makhdum.^[5] Their activities increased local recruitment and led to more volunteers joining the Basmachis. During this period, Abdulkahhar established communication with Emir Said Mir Alimkhan in Afghanistan, Lakay Ibrahim, and Enver Pasha in Bukhara. According to Emir Said Alimkhan, Abdulkahhar's army was reinforced by 6,000 men around Bukhara, 2,000 from Vabkent, 2,000 from Qiziltepa, 2,000 from Shofirkon, 2,500 from Romitan and Peshku, and 2,000 from Kogon district.^{[7][8][9][10]} At the end of December 1921, Enver Pasha assumed command of all Basmachi units in Eastern Bukhara. He coordinated with the Basmachis across Turkestan, including Abdulkahhar, successfully unifying the army in Eastern Bukhara and implementing a Western European style of command.^[8] Amir Alim Khan recalls Abdulkahhar in his memoirs:^[9]

"Molla Abdulkahhar, with the permission of this servant, led the selfless mujahideen from Kabul around Bukhara and its districts, established discipline among the soldiers, and then attacked the enemy with the intention of liberating the Gijduvan district. Thus, he saved the Gijduvan district from the enemy's hands and brought it under his control. With this, many supporters of religion and this servant, selfless people from there joined him"

Following his operations toward Bukhara,^[11][12] Abdulkahhar captured the districts of Gijduvon, Shofirkon, Vabkent, Romitan, and Nurata. In March 1922, he launched a military operation against Bukhara, seizing most of the city and advancing toward Kogon, a key railway junction about 12.8 km (12 versts) from old Bukhara.^[13][14][15] Abdulkahhar also seized the Baha' al-Din Naqshband shrine, the tomb of the founder of the Naqshbandi Sufi Order.^[16] The Red Army was defeated near the Mehta Qasim bridge over the Zarafshan River.^[17] He participated in the siege of Khiva alongside Junaid Khan during uprisings against the Soviet government in 1922.^[18][19][20]

The Soviets suffered defeats to Junaid Khan and Abdulkahhar in Khiva,^[20][21] allowing the Basmachis to seize control of Khorezm and Khiva.^{[22][23][24][25][26][excessive citations]} To protect their supply line to Bukhara, the Soviet command dispatched cavalry from Samarkand, Budyonny's forces from the Trans-Caspian front, and additional troops from Tashkent, the Fergana Valley,^[27] and the central region. In total, the Soviets sent 12,000 additional troops and several armored trains to Bukhara,^[28][13] with some estimates rising to as many as 50,000 in the following months.^[29][30] In June, he was defeated by the Red Army units and forced to retreat.^[31]

In the spring and autumn of 1923, the Soviet command maintained a substantial military presence in the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic to counter the Basmachi movement. Estimates put Soviet forces at up to 100,000, primarily cavalry supported by airplanes, artillery, and armored vehicles.^[32][33]

In early July 1923, he held a congress with Basmachi leaders from Bukhara and Karmana provinces to assess the movement. Here, they decided to shift to defensive and guerrilla tactics. Meanwhile, the Soviets focused on military strategies; at a June 1923 meeting, Stalin accused several Central Asian officials, including Turar Ryskulov, Fayzulla Xoʻjayev, A. Akramov, and Sami Hocanov, of collaborating with the Basmachi.^[34] To ensure swift and precise execution of Soviet directives, a special authorized representative, Y. Rudzutaks, was sent to Bukhara.^[35]

In November 1923, the Basmachis organized a major operation in the Bukhara and Samarkand regions. Participants included Abdulkahhar from Western Bukhara, Bedri Dodho from Karshi, Abdurahim from Yakkabog, and Abdulkadir from the Kyzylkum Desert.^{[33][36][37][38]} Fraser notes that Abdulkahhar's troops were actively engaged in eastern Bukhara, where they levied imposts.^[37]

The fifth year of the Basmachi movement in the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic began under difficult conditions. In Western Bukhara under Abdulkahhar, and in Eastern Bukhara under Ibrahim Bek, a combined force of around 10,000 fought.^[36] However, their forces and resources were unequal. Basmachi forces faced attacks from Soviet troops and suffered heavy losses.^[36] According to Soviet sources, between 10 January and 25 June 1924, 25 Basmachis and 474 troops were killed; 2 Basmachis and 93 troops were wounded; 12 Basmachis and 194 troops were captured; and 59 Basmachis along with 637 troops surrendered.^[39][36] In one of the clashes with Red Army units on June 21, Abdulkahhar was severely wounded.^[16] Despite these losses, Soviet forces were not able to eliminate the Basmachis in Bukhara. Soviet intelligence reports from June 1924 warned that "Basmachi activity remains intense in both Central and Western Bukhara."^[39] In the summer (or November)^[17] of 1924, Abdulkahhar and his two brothers, Metin Palvan and Naim Palvan, were killed during Soviet attacks in the Kyzylkum Desert.^[40][3][6]