Mongolian Revolution of 1990

One-party state

Over the following decades, Mongolia would become highly aligned with the Soviet Union and considered its "satellite state", which was preferable to the alternative of China, both before and after 1949.^[11][12] Various extreme measures were taken to establish the Mongolian communist state including the persecution and purges of democratic leaders, lamas, and intellectuals.^[13] The massive transformations in the country included a complete ban of religious practices and the destruction of 700 monasteries, but also the construction of Mongolia's largest cities, the establishment of major industries, and the education of the masses.^[14][15] The Mongolian People's Republic was led by Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan from 1939 to 1952, followed by Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal who served as the leader of the state from 1952 to 1984, both of whom were regarded to be highly agreeable with the Soviet Union's increasing involvement in Mongolia.^[16][17]

1980s reforms

After the resignation of Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal in 1984, inspired by Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms in the Soviet Union, the new leadership under Jambyn Batmönkh implemented economic reforms but failed to appeal to those who, in late 1989, wanted broader political and societal changes.^[18] Concepts such as glasnost, freedom of speech, and economic liberties that the intellectuals were exposed to abroad inspired the initial discussions that would lead to the revolution.^[19][20]

Beginning in December 1988, the ruling party's newsletter, Ünen (lit."Truth"), began publishing a new column called "Workers' Letters," which criticized the Politburo and party leaders for the first time.^[21] Also in December 1988, a youth underground organization called "New Generation" (Шинэ үе) was established by young dissidents: Erdeniin Bat-Üül, the son of well-known author Sengiin Erdene; Sosorbaramyn Tsogtsaikhan, lead singer of Honh (Хонх, lit.'Bell') band; and Sukhbaataryn Amarsanaa, a journalist.^[21][22]

December 1989

The first public demonstrations took place on 6 December 1989 in Erdenet, the second-largest city of the MPR.^[21] During the demonstration, protestors submitted demands for the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Erdenet, the full nationalization of Erdenet Mining Corporation (jointly owned by the governments of the MPR and the USSR), and the resignation of the Politburo of the MPRP's Central Committee to local party structures.^[23]

The next day, on 7 December, similar demonstrations by teachers and students took place in Ard Ayush square at Khovd, the provincial capital of Khovd Province. The demonstrators handed over demands for the resignation of the Politburo and the government to the local governing body, which were to be delivered to Ulaanbaatar, the capital.^[23]

On the morning of 10 December 1989, on International Human Rights Day, the first open pro-democracy public demonstration occurred in front of the Youth Cultural Center in Ulaanbaatar, where the creation of the Mongolian Democratic Union (MDU) was announced with Sanjaasürengiin Zorig as general organizer.^[24][25] During the demonstration, around 300 protestors submitted 13-point demands to the government.^[21][23] The demands included a multi-party system, free elections with universal suffrage, the replacement of a centrally planned economy with a market economy, private property, re-organization of the government, and protection of human rights, particularly freedom of religion.^[26] The protesters injected a nationalist element into the protests by using traditional Mongolian script—which most Mongolians could not read—as a symbolic repudiation of the political system that had imposed the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet.

Many now-prominent figures, such as Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj , along with Dari-Sukhbaatar and Chimediin Enkhee, were members of the MDU and would eventually come to be known as the Thirteen Leaders of Mongolia's Democratic Revolution, commonly referred to as the First Thirteen.^[27][28][29] MDU members and anyone associated with the movement had to be secretive to ensure their security. Members that were known to be associated with the organisation were laid off on the basis of "engaging in conduct inconsistent with communist and socialist ideology".^[27]

Demonstrations drastically increased by late December when the news of Garry Kasparov's interview with Playboy broke. The interview suggested that the Soviet Union might sell Mongolia to China in order to raise money.^[18][30]

January 1990

On 2 January 1990, the MDU began distributing leaflets calling for a democratic revolution.^[31]

Flag of the Mongolian People's Republic (1945–1992)

Modified flag of Mongolia used by protestors; later adopted as official flag in 1992

On 14 January 1990, the protesters, having grown from 300 to a few thousand, gathered in the square in front of the Lenin Museum.

A demonstration on Sükhbaatar Square on 21 January (in weather of −30°C) followed. Protesters carried banners alluding to Chinggis Khaan, rehabilitating a figure which the socialist school curriculums had outright banned.^[32] They also celebrated Daramyn Tömör-Ochir, a politician who was purged from the MPRP in 1962 as part of the MPRP's efforts to suppress the commemoration of the 800th anniversary of Chinggis Khaan's birth. The protestors carried a modified Flag of Mongolia, which distinctly lacked the star representing the country's socialist beliefs; this flag would eventually become the official flag after the revolution.^[18] MDU organizer and leader Zorig called for the removal of a constitutional clause that allowed the MPRP to rule over Mongolia.^[23]

February 1990

In subsequent months, activists continued to organise demonstrations, rallies, protests, and hunger strikes, as well as teachers' and workers' strikes.^[33] Activists had growing support from Mongolians, both in the capital and the countryside, and the MDU's activities led to other calls for democracy all over the country.^[34][35][36] The demonstrations expanded to thousands in the capital city, Ulaanbaatar, and to other major cities, such as Erdenet and Darkhan, as well as to provincial centers like Mörön.

On 18 February 1990, the MDU convened its first Congress with 611 representatives and 200 guests from 16 provinces and 3 cities. During the congress, the MDU announced the establishment of the Mongolian Democratic Party, Mongolia's first opposition party, and the first independent print press, Shine Toli (Шинэ толь), was issued the same day. Around 30 foreign journalists came to report on the events.^[23] Large-scale demonstrations were followed by the creation of the first opposition parties of Mongolia.

March 1990

After numerous demonstrations of thousands in both the capital city and provincial centers, on 4 March 1990, the MDU and three other reform organisations held a joint outdoor mass meeting, inviting the government to attend. The government sent no representative to what became a demonstration of over 100,000 people demanding democratic change.^[31]

On 7 March 1990, in Sükhbaatar Square, the MDU initially started a hunger strike of ten, urging the current government to resign. The hunger strike escalated as thousands gathered to join the strike, declaring that the strike would not end until the resignation of the current government.^[37]

The situation was tense. Behind the scenes within the Politburo, there were serious discussions about cracking down on the protestors. Eventually, a decree was written, awaiting approval from the Chairman of the MPRP, Jambyn Batmönkh, that would effectively repress the protests. Batmönkh outwardly opposed the decree, maintaining that they must "under no circumstances resort to using violence" (Mongolian: Хэрхэвч Хүч хэрэглэж болохгүй). Those who were present there later recalled that Batmönkh said, "I will never sign this. We few Mongols have not yet come to the point that we will make each other's noses bleed," smacked the table, and left the room."^[38] On 9 March^[39] or 15 March 1990,^[40] the Politburo was replaced, and on 21 March 1990, Batmönkh announced his resignation.^[39]

Elbegdorj announced the news of the Politburo resignation to the hunger strikers and to people who had gathered on Sükhbaatar Square at 10:00 pm.^[27][when?] The hunger strike stopped. The MPRP Politburo's resignation paved the way for the first multi-party elections in Mongolia.^[33] The new government announced Mongolia's first free parliamentary elections, which were to be held in July.