Naksaparvat

Naksaparbat consists of a fortified settlement enclosed by earthen defensive works. Archaeological investigations have revealed habitation remains, structural foundations, ring wells, pottery, stone architectural fragments and decorated pillars, indicating the presence of an organised settlement with developed construction traditions.^[12]

The site occupies a strategic foothill location overlooking routes connecting the Brahmaputra Valley with the eastern Himalayan region. Its position suggests that it may have functioned as an administrative, defensive or commercial centre during the medieval period.^[13]

Although no inscription has been discovered at Naksaparvat identifying its builders or political affiliation, several archaeological and historical observations have led scholars and researchers to note similarities between the site and known Chutia-period remains of the Assam–Arunachal foothill zone.

The site is dated to approximately the 13th–16th centuries CE,^[14][15] corresponding closely with the period of the Chutia kingdom. Historians have suggested that the Chutia kingdom extended westwards at least as far as Biswanath, immediately south of the Naksaparvat foothill region.^[16] Architecturally, Naksaparvat contains several features also found at medieval sites traditionally associated with the Chutia kingdom, including brick and stone plinths, stone posts, ring wells and stone-cum-earthen ramparts. Similar construction techniques have been reported from Bhismaknagar, Rukmininagar Fort, Gomsi, Buroi, the Tamreswari Temple complex and other archaeological sites of the Sadiya region.^[17]

Almost all the building materials made of stone found at the site (including the stone posts and slabs) bear engraved symbols or masons' marks. More than forty such marks have been recorded at Naksaparvat.^[18] Comparable marks have been documented from Malinithan and other medieval sites of the Assam–Arunachal foothills,^[19] Historians have argued that architectural continuity (including these marks) between the sites of the Sadiya region and others near Naksaparvat like the Buroi foothill site may indicate the wider extent of the Chutia cultural sphere.^[20][21]

Additional parallels include the use of serpent motifs in sculptural art (similar to the snake motiffs found at Tamreswari temple and the Sadiya Serpent Pillar), the presence of terracotta ring wells comparable to those reported from the Sadiya archaeological complex^[22], and stone pillars similar to those identified at the Buroi site. These suggest that Naksaparvat formed part of the same broader cultural and architectural tradition that flourished in the eastern Himalayan foothills during the late medieval period.

Some evidence suggests Buddhist religious influence in and around the Naksaparvat–Borgang foothill region. Tada (2011) noted that Tantric Buddhist influences are visible on some of the sandstone sculptured pillars recovered from Naksaparvat, although other finds indicate a mixed religious landscape including Śaiva and nature-worship elements.^[23] A Tibetan-language stone inscription associated with the Borgang–Naksaparvat area is said to record the construction of a religious structure by a woman named Ayungel Humo for the spiritual benefit of her deceased husband Jo-ri or Jo-bi followed by the Tibetan mantra Om mane padme hum.^[24] Similar Tibetan Buddhist epigraphic material has been reported from nearby foothill sites. A stone bearing the Tibetan Buddhist mantra Om mani padme hum has been reported from the Sadiya–Roing region, while at Dimachang New Betali, a Tibetan rock inscription bearing the mantra Om mane peme hum and another inscribed object bearing Om mane peme hum and Om Bajra Guru peme Chije hum Shri were recorded.^[25] Another Vajra bell used as a ritual tool in Tibetan Buddhism was found in the Gohpur region of Lakhimpur district. Such finds point to Tibetan Buddhist religious contact in the northern Brahmaputra–Arunachal foothill zone, but do not by themselves identify the builders or political affiliation of Naksaparvat.

Archaeological excavations recovered decorated stone pillars, pillar bases, stone post supports, brick-and-stone plinths and architectural fragments. These remains suggest the existence of substantial structures within the settlement and indicate the use of both stone and brick in construction.^[26] Decorative elements found at the site include carved architectural stones, sculptured sandstone pillars and ornamented structural fragments, pointing to developed artistic and architectural traditions.^[27] As per Tada (2011), some of the sculptured pillars were shifted to the Assam State Museum, Guwahati. He also states that the original place of installation of these pillars within the site was also located, and the ruins included a stone plinth and some stone columns. A broken piece of granite found at that place was most probably a Shiva Linga^[28] indicating that the structure with the sculptured pillars could have been a temple. According to A. K. Thakur, eight of these sandstone pillars from the site bear engraved naturalistic figures depicting humans, plants and animals, including birds and reptiles. The figures are carved in relief and, although comparatively simple in execution, display indigenous artistic traditions and are considered representative of the socio-cultural and religious life of the people who occupied the site.^[29]

Thakur notes that the human figures exhibit tribal facial characteristics and may reflect the influence of Tantric Buddhist traditions. The figures are generally portrayed in active poses and emphasize movement and expression.^[30] The dressed stones used in the structures at Naksaparbat also contain numerous engraved symbols and mason's marks. More than forty different symbols have been identified, including geometric, non-geometric and pictographic forms.^[31] Thakur further observed that several of these symbols resemble marks recorded at Malinithan, a temple complex dated to the 13th–14th centuries CE, suggesting the persistence of similar stone-working traditions across different sites of Arunachal Pradesh.^[32]

Water-management system

Excavations revealed a sophisticated water-management system consisting of a stone well, ring well, a large rectangular basin and a reservoir pond.^[37] A terracotta ring well found in the lower settlement was constructed from stacked terracotta rings sunk into the ground. Another large stone well was found within the upper settlement, made of blocks of sandstone. A platform was built around the well, indicating its importance within the settlement's infrastructure. Recently, a protective brick wall has been built on top of the ancient stone well.^[38] The site also contains a large rectangular basin measuring approximately 262 metres in length, 38 metres in width and 4.5 metres in depth. The basin was equipped with inlet and outlet channels as well as a sedimentation chamber that functioned as a filtration system. According to Tada (2011), the arrangement demonstrates an advanced understanding of water conservation and management.^[39] A smaller reservoir measuring approximately 30 by 31.5 metres was located outside the northern rampart and appears to have served as an additional water-storage facility.^[40]

Naksaparvat represents one of the most important medieval archaeological sites in Arunachal Pradesh. Together with sites such as Bhismaknagar, Rukmininagar Fort, Gomsi, Tamreswari Temple, Malinithan and other archaeological remains of the Assam–Arunachal foothill zone, it contributes to the understanding of medieval settlement systems in the eastern Himalayan foothills.^[46] The site provides evidence for organised habitation, defensive architecture and developed material culture in a region where comparatively few medieval settlements have been excavated.^[47] Its fortified layout, brick-and-stone architectural remains, terracotta ring well, engineered water-management system, sculptured sandstone pillars and mason's marks demonstrate a high degree of planning and craftsmanship.^[48][49]

Tada (2011) interpreted Naksaparvat as a tribal settlement dating to the 15th–16th centuries CE. While no inscription identifying a ruling dynasty has been discovered, the site demonstrates cultural interaction with neighbouring regions of the Brahmaputra Valley through its pottery, sculptural traditions and material culture. He further noted that the excavated remains show no similarity to contemporary Ahom material culture.^[50] Several features of the site have been compared with archaeological remains traditionally associated with the Chutia kingdom, including the use of brick-and-stone plinths, sandstone pillars bearing mason's marks, terracotta ring wells and fortified foothill settlements. The site's dating, geographical location immediately north of Biswanath, and similarities with sites in the Sadiya region have led some researchers to regard Naksaparvat as part of the broader cultural and architectural tradition that flourished in territories associated with the Chutia kingdom during the late medieval period, although a direct dynastic attribution remains unproven.^[51][52][53]