Ngoenyang

Formation

Following the collapse of the Yonok Kingdom as a result of a severe earthquake in the 6th century, the remaining settlements consolidated into an alliance and relocated the principal political center to Wiang Prueksa, which was subsequently governed by a succession of sixteen rulers.^[7]: 105 Thereafter, Tai Yuan people of Wiang Prueksa invited Lao Chakkaraj, a head of the Lawa people from Doi Tung, to became their new ruler.^{[8]: 53–4} After ascending the throne, Lao Chakkaraj reconstructed the city, and established it as his new chief center under the name "Hiran Nakhon" in 638.^[5] He also rebuilt Mueang Fang and later founded new cities that became Chiang Rai and Chiang Khong.^{[9]: 244–5}

During the early reign of Lao Chakkaraj, the polity of Ngoenyang comprised 57 cities or settlements,^{[9]: 241–3} with four additional regional centers besides Hiran–Ngoenyang: Mueang Fang, north of modern Chiang Mai province; Mong Hsat in present-day Shan State, Myanmar; Mueang Hang Rung Rung (เมืองหางรังรุ้ง) in modern Hot district of Chiang Mai province; and Mueang Jawad Noi (เมืองจวาดน้อย/สาดน้อย) in present-day Mueang Chiang Mai district.^[9]: 245 The northernmost extent of his polity was Mong Yawng, where he appointed one of his sons as ruler,^[9]: 247 while the eastern boundary adjoined Vieng Phouka, ruled by his uncle, whose daughter later married Lao Kao Kaeo Ma Mueang, youngest son of Lao Chakkaraj.^[9]: 257

In 662, the southern part in the Ping River Basin was split off and became the Haripuñjaya Kingdom, ruled by Queen Camadevi of Lavo. After the end of Lao Chakkaraj's reign in 759, his three sons ruled separate polities independently, without interference in each other’s affairs.^[1]: 7 This division fragmented the polity into three parts: the eastern part, with its seat at Chiang Khong, ruled by the eldest son Lao Khob (ลาวคอบ); the northern part, centered at Mong Yawng, ruled by the middle son Lao Chang (ลาวช้าง); and the youngest son, Lao Kao Kaeo Ma Mueang, succeeded his father at Hiran–Ngoenyang.^[9]: 247

Chinese account of Duo Mo Zhang

In the Xianqing era (咸亨; 670–674 CE) of Emperor Gaozong of Tang, the king of Duo Mo Zhang (多摩長), named Shī luó qú (尸羅劬), sent a tributary mission to the Chinese court. His polity is described in the Tongdian as lacking surnames within its ruling structure. The royal residence is depicted as a fortified enclosure made of palisades, with a wooden hall in which the king sits upon a lion throne facing east. Cultural practices are noted to resemble those of the Kingdom of Lin-yi, particularly in clothing. The polity is said to maintain a military force of over 20,000 soldiers, though it lacks horses, relying instead on bows, swords, armor, and other weapons. Marriage customs are not regulated by surname distinctions. Material culture includes tableware made of copper, iron, gold, and silver, while the diet consists largely of ghee, cheese, sugar, and rock sugar (misri). Livestock includes rams and water buffalo, and the surrounding environment supports wild animals such as roe deer and deer. Mortuary practices involve cremation without the use of mourning garments, and their music is described as bearing some resemblance to that of India.^[12]

Building upon this primary description, Tatsuo Hoshino proposes that Duo Mo Zhang, as recorded in the Chinese source Tongdian,^[12] should be located within the fluvial zone of present-day northern Thailand, an area subsequently associated with the Lan Na cultural and political sphere.^[13]: 60 To substantiate this identification, he argues that He Ling (訶陵), described in the text as the northern neighbor of Duo Mo Zhang, is distinct from the He Ling situated south of Chenla. This distinction is supported by the Biography of Guo Wei, a Tang noble in Yunnan, which records a He Ling among the eight polities subdued during his campaign.^[13]: 32 Furthermore, Hoshino employs phonological reconstruction of toponyms along the route from Duo Mo Zhang to Lin-yi, suggesting that the sequence of polities referenced—namely Sa Lu, Du He Lu, and Jun Na Lu (君那盧)—corresponds plausibly to locations along the middle Mekong basin, which he associates respectively with the areas of present-day Luang Prabang, Vientiane, and the Nakhon Phanom–Thakhek region.^{[13]: 60–1}

Hoshino further critiques earlier scholarship that interprets the two references to He Ling as denoting a single polity, particularly those identifications that associate it with the Kalingga kingdom on Java island.^{[13]: 31–2} He contends that such a reconstruction produces untenable spatial and chronological implications within the framework of the Tongdian narrative. In his analysis, the depiction of Duo Mo Zhang as a polity of considerable extent—requiring approximately one month of travel in the east–west direction and twenty-five days in the north–south axis—would, under the Java hypothesis, displace its Indianized southern neighbor Qian Zhi Fu to the extreme southern margins of the known world, potentially extending even to regions as remote as Australia, a conclusion that he regards as historically implausible for the period in question.^{[13]: 31–4}

Moreover, Hoshino argues that the geographical characteristics attributed to Duo Mo Zhang more closely match the physiographic conditions of mainland Southeast Asia, particularly the mountainous northern zone, than the insular environment of Java. He emphasizes that the textual indication of easier traversal along the north–south axis, as opposed to the east–west direction, is more consistent with a landscape structured by a series of north–south oriented mountain ranges rather than the predominantly east–west spatial configuration of Java.^[13]: 60 On this basis, he further re-situates many polities recorded in Chinese sources, including Po An (婆岸) and Zhan Bo, within the middle Mekong basin.^[13]: 30

Southern influence of Nanzhao

Approximately a century after the conventionally accepted founding of the Tai Yuan polity of Ngoenyang, a parallel process of political consolidation unfolded to the north in the region corresponding to present-day Yunnan. During this period, a confederation known as the Six Zhao (六詔; Luh zhao), comprising six regional lordships, gradually coalesced. Contemporary and retrospective sources indicate that five of these lordships were constituted, at least in part, by Tai-speaking Lao or Lao-affiliated populations.^{[14]: 222–3} This confederative arrangement culminated in 738 with the establishment of the mandala-style kingdom of Nanzhao, which subsequently emerged as a dominant regional power in southwestern China and mainland Southeast Asia and maintained its political primacy until its dissolution in 902.^[15]: 103

Although no extant historical records explicitly document direct political or diplomatic engagement between Nanzhao and either the Tai Yuan kingdom of Ngoenyang or the Lao muang of Muang Sua, a constellation of indirect indicators suggests that some degree of contact, interaction, or structural influence was likely. By the 9th century, Nanzhao had developed into a territorially expansive polity, extending approximately 600–700 miles from north to south.^[14]: 237 Its expansionary strategies were not limited to military coercion but also relied upon the systematic cultivation of political alliances, including marriage alliances.^{[14]: 238, 245–6} In this context, the 9th-century Chinese ethnographic and geographic text Man Shu (蛮书) records that Nanzhao’s sphere of influence expanded southward and southwestward along major river systems, through which political and military power was projected into the territories of numerous groups collectively designated as the Southern Barbarians (南方诸蛮).

Further evidence for Nanzhao’s engagement with Tai-speaking elites is provided by the historical prominence of the Nùng clan, a Tai-speaking aristocratic lineage based primarily in Guangxi, to the east of the Nanzhao heartland. Scholarly reconstructions suggest that the Nung maintained sustained political and military relations with Nanzhao for at least a century prior to the mid-11th century, when their leader Nong Zhigao, who rebelled against the Song dynasty, rose to prominence during the transitional period between Nanzhao and its successor polity, the Dali Kingdom.^[14]: 246

Chinese historical sources provide divergent accounts of Nong Zhigao’s ultimate fate. The Zizhi Tongjian records that he was executed by the ruler of Dali and that his severed head was presented to the Song court, whereas the Song Shi acknowledges uncertainty regarding the circumstances of his death.^[16]: 261 In parallel, a substantial corpus of oral tradition and popular historiography asserts that Nong Zhigao escaped southward into what is now northern Thailand, where he is venerated as an ancestral figure by various Tai-speaking communities,^{[17]: 7–9} who, among other Tais, identify themselves as descendants or cultural inheritors of his movement.^[16]: 268

Phase of expansions

Capital city expansion

Following the collapse of Nanzhao due to the usurpation by Zheng Maisi in 902 CE, the Yunnan region entered a prolonged phase of political fragmentation and instability lasting nearly four decades, until the establishment of the Dali Kingdom in 937 CE. During this period, it is plausible that population movements occurred, including southward migrations into areas corresponding to present-day northern Thailand. This proposed demographic shift may be considered in parallel with accounts preserved in the Phayao Chronicle, which describe the expansion of the capital of Ngoenyang under the leadership of Lao Khiang in the mid-10th century. According to the chronicle, the city underwent significant enlargement,^[10] eventually reaching dimensions of approximately 1.5 by 7.0 kilometers.

Early Tai muang conflicts

Several local historiographical traditions describe a series of conflicts among Tai mueang polities in the middle Mekong basin during the 12th century.^[24] According to these accounts, Ngoenyang was subjected to invasions by neighboring powers, notably Mueang Kaew Prakan (เมืองแกวประกัน) and Candrapuri. Mueang Kaew Prakan is commonly identified with Xiangkhouang (Muang Phuan)^{[25][26]: 126} and is thought to have been associated with the Tai Kao [th]^[24]: 263 or to have been significantly influenced by the Viet.^[24]: 262 Candrapuri, meanwhile, is generally identified with the site of modern Vientiane.^[8]: 78

The sources further relate that the invading forces were ultimately repelled by the troops of Ngoenyang under the leadership of Chueang. Following the successful defense, Chueang initiated a series of counteroffensives that resulted in the subjugation and annexation of several surrounding mueang.^{[1]: 9–11 [8]: 78–9} In order to consolidate control over these newly conquered territories, Chueang appointed his sons and close relatives as rulers, thereby extending Ngoenyang’s political influence through dynastic governance.^{[8]: 82–3} The appointments are recorded as follows: Chueang III was installed as ruler of Muang Phuan;^[8]: 82 Lao Pao (ลาวพาว) was appointed to govern Candrapuri;^[8]: 85 Khun Kham Roi (ขุนคำร้อย) was placed in authority over Chiang Rai;^[8]: 82 Lao Bao (ลาวบาว; also known as Kham Hao คำห้าว) was assigned to rule Muang Sua;^[27] Khun Phaeng (ขุนแพง) was installed as ruler of Phayao;^[27] and Sam Chum Saeng (สามชุมแสง) became ruler of the Nan Kingdom [th].^[27] Chueang’s eldest son, Lao Ngoen Rueang, succeeded him as ruler of Ngoenyang,^[8]: 85 while Chueang himself reportedly relocated to govern Chiang Hung in 1180,^[28] From this base, Chueang is further said to have launched a military campaign against Chiang Tung, the principal center of the Tai Khün [th] (Khoen) kingdom.^[29]

Following the conclusion of Chueang’s reign, the polities under his lineage developed into autonomous mueang, each exercising independent authority while maintaining dynastic and ritual ties to one another.^{[26]: 122, 130} This configuration closely resembles the mandala model of political organization characteristic of mainland Southeast Asia, in which power was diffused through overlapping spheres of influence rather than centralized territorial sovereignty.

The Rise of Mangrai

A pivotal transformation occurred in 1262 when Mangrai ascended the throne as the 25th ruler of Ngoenyang Chiang Lao. Visionary and ambitious, he sought to unify the smaller principalities scattered across the northern region.^{[26]: 130 [30]: 208–9} Upon his enthronement, Mangrai founded the city of Chiang Rai, designating it as his new capital. This act marked the end of the Lao Dynasty of Ngoenyang Chiang Lao and the beginning of the Mangrai dynasty, which later became the foundation of the Lan Na Kingdom.^{[26]: 130 [31]}

Divergent dynastic traditions

Two distinct versions of the Hiran Ngoenyang dynastic lineage are preserved in the historical tradition. The first, recorded in the The Chiang Mai Chronicle, identifies Mae Sai and Wiang Phang Kham as the principal royal seats. The second, presented in the Chronicle of Chiang Saen, asserts that Chiang Saen itself functioned as the dynastic center and offers a somewhat different sequence of rulers, with several reigns overlapping chronologically with those listed in the The Chiang Mai Chronicle.^[5] To date, no comparative study has systematically examined these two accounts to determine whether they describe a single dynasty from differing perspectives or represent parallel, contemporaneous dynasties.

With regard to the issue under discussion, the first eight monarchs recorded in both sources correspond closely in nomenclature, regnal periods, and chronological sequence. A notable divergence, however, appears from the 9th ruler onward. The Chiang Mai Chronicle identifies the ninth ruler, Lao Khiang, as having relocated the political center and expanded earlier settlements, thereby establishing Ngoenyang as a new administrative hub. By contrast, the Chronicle of Chiang Saen identifies the 9th ruler as Lao Ton, assigns him a significantly shorter reign, and provides no further information on political, administrative, or urban developments. The royal lineages in both sources begin to converge again in the late Ngoenyang period, from the early 12th century onward. This phase coincides with the relocation of Śrīdharmatripiṭaka of Chiang Saen to Phitsanulok in the upper Menam Valley, where he established his authority and remained until his death, as mentioned in the Northern Chronicle.^[23]

Reign length issue of Lao Chakkaraj

The traditionally recorded account of the exceptionally long reign of Lao Chakkaraj, also known as Pu Chao Lao Jok (ปู่เจ้าลาวจก), presents a significant chronological problem. Several sources attribute to this ruler a reign exceeding one hundred years,^{[1]: 7–8 [8]: 62} a duration that is inconsistent with established historical chronology. This discrepancy has been interpreted as possibly arising from the use of Pu Chao Lao Jok not as a personal name, but as a hereditary or honorific title borne successively by multiple rulers of Lawa polities across different periods.

Evidence supporting this interpretation appears in the Legend of Singhanavati, particularly in accounts concerning the reign of Singhanavati [th], the first monarch of the Yonok Kingdom. Dated to the 7th century BCE, the narrative mentions a figure bearing the title Pu Chao Lao Jok,^{[32]: 3–4} identified as Lao Kayu (ลาวกะยู), who is described as a ruler of the Lawa people.^[7]: 29 A century later,^[7]: 40 during the reign of Achuttraraj (พญาอชุตราช),^{[7]: 41–2} the text again refers to a figure holding the title Pu Chao Lao Jok, identified as Kammalo Rishi (กัมมโลฤาษี),^{[7]: 37, 42} who ruled a polity centered at Doi Tung and whose adopted daughter was married to Achuttraraj.^{[7]: 36–37}

References to the same title in later periods further support the possibility of its continued use across generations. Notably, during the reign of Pangkharaj [th] of Yonok in the 4th century CE, the chronicles again mention Pu Chao Lao Jok as the ruler of a polity at Doi Tung.^[7]: 74 The recurrence of the title over several centuries suggests continuity in titulature rather than the reign of a single individual of exceptional longevity. This interpretation is consistent with the hypothesis proposed by Manit Vallipodom, who argues that Lao Chakkaraj, or Pu Chao Lao Jok of Ngoenyang, was a descendant of an earlier Pu Chao Lao Jok associated with Yonok.^[7]: 52

Lists of rulers