Pedal laceration usually occurs in seawater with temperatures exceeding 20°C, but activity diminishes as the temperature drops. It is infrequently observed when monthly average temperatures fall below 15°C.[10] Elevated temperatures can boost metabolic processes, thereby increasing the rate of pedal laceration.[11] While warmer temperatures may facilitate the healing of lacerated areas, excessively high temperatures can induce stress.[12] For instance, in Haliplanella luciae, the rate of fission is influenced by temperature.[13] Likewise, temperature has been shown to impact the fission rate in Diadumene luciae.[14]
Moderate currents can enhance the dispersal of pedal fragments, thereby supporting reproductive processes.[11] Strong currents or manual cutting can lead to lacerations.[12] In the case of Metridium senile, water flow has been demonstrated to affect asexual reproduction.[14][11]
Continuous darkness significantly increases the rate of pedal laceration in Aiptasia pulchella. In contrast, light conditions reduce the rate of asexual reproduction.[14] In the study, anemones kept in continuous darkness produced nearly twice as many lacerates as those kept in light. Dark-treated anemones generated almost double the lacerates compared to those exposed to light.[14] Additionally, Sebens' team conducted the study and found no effect of light on the rate of asexual reproduction in Anthopleura elegantissima.[15]
Aiptasia experiences higher rates of pedal laceration when the oxygen concentration in the water is reduced.[14]
In marine hard substrate environments, space is frequently a vital and limiting resource.[13] High densities can lead to crowding, which may trigger asexual reproduction as a means of survival in such conditions.[11]
Anemones that are well-fed may dedicate more energy to reproductive processes.[11][12] On the other hand, a lack of food or restricted resources can either prevent laceration or, in certain cases, trigger it as a method of survival.[11] For instance, research indicates that starvation can lead to higher rates of asexual reproduction in species such as Anthopleura elegantissima and Aiptasia geton comatus.[14][15] Moreover, the presence of zooxanthellae has been found to promote pedal laceration during times of starvation (5). Additionally, the pedal laceration observed in Metridium senile has been linked to the availability of zooplankton.[13]
The feeding rates did not have a notable impact on the pedal laceration rate in Aiptasia pulchella. In contrast, other species, like Haliplanella luciae, have demonstrated that feeding rates can directly affect asexual reproduction.[14][13]
Mature anemones are more likely to undergo laceration, and to produce more lacerate offspring, when the substrate beneath them is unstable.[16] This allows clonal populations to recolonize upturned substrata, as individuals are unable to prevent themselves from being buried.
The existence of symbiotic zooxanthellae can significantly impact the energy budget of sea anemones, which may, in turn, influence the rate of pedal laceration. The availability of light, affecting the photosynthesis of zooxanthellae, plays an important role in this process.[14] In Aiptasia pulchella, the release of zooxanthellae in dark conditions results in a decrease in energy density, potentially leading to an increased rate of pedal laceration.[14]
Having algae as symbionts improves energy availability, thereby promoting growth and survival. For instance, in the study of Glennon, it found that symbiotic anemones outperformed aposymbiotic ones in terms of growth.[12] Additionally, anemones that experienced reduced symbiont density through cold-shock treatment produced more pedal lacerates compared to those with a high density of symbionts.[17] Notably, symbiotic lacerates did not show a faster developmental rate than aposymbiotic lacerates during the initial stages.[18]
The success rate of lacerate offspring is mainly unaffected by the fitness or size of the parents and is primarily influenced by the initial sizes of the lacerate in relation to the development rate of E. diaphana.[12] Although the size of the parent anemone can affect the size of the produced pedal lacerates, it does not have a meaningful impact on the number of lacerates generated. For instance, while larger anemones typically yield larger pedal lacerates, the initial size of the parent does not significantly alter the total number of lacerates produced.[14]
