Polyandrocarpa

Species of the genus Polyandrocarpa are invertebrates, and their bodies are surrounded by a tunic resembling cartilage, composed of proteins, carbohydrates, and tunicin, with thickness ranging from thin and delicate to transparent and gelatinous.^[1] They are primarily sessile species that filter-feed and reproduce by budding.^[2][3] As members of the order Stolidobranchia they have folded pharyngeal baskets.^[4]

Characteristics include bilateral symmetry, colonial organization, a soft-bodied skeletal structure, and may possibly include an ocelli visual system. Species are filter feeders in marine benthic and shallow environments.^[5]

Species within the genus Polyandrocarpa include:^[6]

• Polyandrocarpa abjornseni Michaelsen, 1927 has two, long-oval gonads on each side of the body, each with six pairs of male follicles, differing from most congeners that have short, numerous polycarp-type gonads.^[7]
• Polyandrocarpa anguinea Sluiter, 1898 - has a known distribution of the southeastern United States (Florida), Panama, Martinique, southeastern Brazil, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Mauritius, Indonesia, Philippines, Australia, and New Caledonia.^[8]
• Polyandrocarpa arianae Monniot F., 2016 - has a polycarpid gonad.^[9]
• Polyandrocarpa aurorae Monniot F., 2018
• Polyandrocarpa australiensis Kott, 1952
• Polyandrocarpa chendurensis Renganathan & Krishnaswamy, 1985
• Polyandrocarpa colemani Kott, 1992 - has a large colony of zooids and a thick layer of muscles within the body wall.^[7]
• Polyandrocarpa colligata Sluiter, 1913
• Polyandrocarpa durbanensis Millar, 1955
• Polyandrocarpa glandulosa Monniot C., 1987
• Polyandrocarpa gravei Van Name, 1931
• Polyandrocarpa griffithsi Monniot C., Monniot F., Griffiths & Schleyer, 2001
• Polyandrocarpa lapidosa Herdman, 1891
• Polyandrocarpa misakiensis Watanabe & Tokioka, 1972
• Polyandrocarpa oligocarpa Millar, 1970
• Polyandrocarpa ordinata Monniot C., 1983
• Polyandrocarpa pilella Herdman, 1881
• Polyandrocarpa placenta Herdman, 1886
• Polyandrocarpa polypora Monniot F. & Monniot C., 2001
• Polyandrocarpa robusta Sluiter, 1919
• Polyandrocarpa rollandi Tokioka, 1961
• Polyandrocarpa shimodensis Brunetti, 2007
• Polyandrocarpa simulans Kott, 1972
• Polyandrocarpa sparsa Kott, 1985
• Polyandrocarpa triggiensis Kott, 1952
• Polyandrocarpa watsonia Kott, 1985
• Polyandrocarpa zorritensis Van Name, 1931 - known distribution of Japan, Guam, and Hawaii, with a probable geographical origin of the Western Pacific region.^[8] It is a colonial species with an asexual life cycle.^[10]

Species of the genus Polyandrocarpa are found in marine environments globally.^[11] They have been reported in various regions, including the coasts of North America, South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans.^[8][12] Different species can range from shallow environments to benthic environments. For example, Polyandrocarpa zorritensis is a shallow water species, whereas Polyandrocarpa arianae have been found deeper than 90 meters in the Mediterranean Sea.^[13]

Some species of the genus Polyandrocarpa are invasive in certain regions. For example, Polyandrocarpa zorritensis is native to the Atlantic Ocean but is considered a threat to certain marine species in the Mediterranean Sea.^[12][14]

Habitats of species of the genus Polyandrocarpa include coral reefs, estuaries, rocky or other hard surfaces, and marine benthic environments. Species attach to surfaces using an adhesive secretion.^[12][15] Species of the genus play an important role in marine ecosystems as filter feeders, helping to remove small particles and pollutants from the water.^[16][17]

Species of the genus Polyandrocarpa feed on small particles and plankton.^[17]