Rebellion of 1510

In the autumn of 1510, following the downfall of Liu Jin, Ning Gao also lost his position and his private army disbanded. Many of his soldiers joined the Lius, increasing their power.^[11] Despite this, the Lius continued to negotiate with the authorities for a peaceful coexistence. They were granted a pardon at the end of the year, but their illegal activities, such as robbery, continued.^[12] The Beijing area was plagued by multiple groups of bandits, including the Liu brothers, as well as other notable leaders such as Qi Yanming and Gu Zimei. These bandits also extended their activities to Shandong. In March 1511, the government, concerned about the situation, began to call upon troops from Beijing and Mongol soldiers from Hejian and Dingzhou to combat them.^[13]

In the spring of 1511, the bandits' center of operations shifted from Shandong back to Beizhili, as well as to Nanzhili, northeastern Henan, and northern Huguang. They operated in highly mobile groups of several thousand, not only plundering the countryside but also attacking cities.^[14] During their attacks, they would occupy cities for days and weeks, freeing prisoners and seizing state supplies from granaries.^[15] The authorities eventually grouped the various cooperating groups into the "Henan Bandits" under Yang Hu and the "Shandong Bandits" under the Liu brothers.^[16]

The Emperor assigned the task of suppressing the rebels to two individuals: the Count of Huai'an, Zhang Wei (d. 1535), and Left Censor-in-chief, Ma Zhongxi (1446–1512). They were given a force of 2,000 soldiers and granted almost unlimited powers.^[15] Meanwhile, the rebels continued their attacks in Shandong, targeting 19 county and subprefecture cities, as well as Beizhili and Henan. One particularly humiliating incident for the authorities was the attack on the Confucius temple in Qufu and the estates of Confucius' descendants in the surrounding area.^[17] By the spring and summer of 1511, the rebels had spread to Beizhili, northern Huguang, eastern Shanxi, and northern Henan. In early August, Yang Hu and Liu the Sixth met in Wen'an, where they captured a member of the local gentry named Zhao Sui, also known as Zhao the Madman. Zhao then recruited 500 men and joined the rebels.^[18]

Ma Zhongxi attempted to negotiate with the rebels, but his efforts were unsuccessful. In August 1511, both he and Zhang Wei were dismissed.^[b] Lu Wan (1458–1526), the Assistant Minister of War, succeeded him. As a pragmatist, Lu Wan maintained good relations with his superiors.^[20]

In September 1511, troops were called back from the border to push the rebels out of the Beijing area and into Shandong. Despite this, the rebels were able to achieve several victories. Yang Hu and Zhao Sui were then joined by local bandits from Henan and Shandong,^[21] and Yang Hu declared himself "Great Prince Yang".^[22] In November 1511, the rebels set fire to over 1,200 boats on the Grand Canal at Jining.^[23] During the same month, Yang Hu was killed in a skirmish with local troops at Bozhou.^[22] He was replaced by Liu San (劉三, or Liu the Third), who, along with Zhao Sui, defeated a large force of government troops, resulting in the deaths of 1,500 soldiers.^[24] Towards the end of 1511, the Liu brothers attacked Bazhou, which was located less than 40 miles (65 km) south of Beijing. This caused great concern and alarm within the government.^[24]

In January 1512, the rebels were forced to retreat to Henan, as they were being pursued by Lu Wan's army.^[25] The majority of the fighting during this time occurred in central and southern Henan, as well as in northern Henan, parts of Jiangxi, and Nanzhili.^[26] The group, known as the "Henan Bandits", led by Zhao Sui and Liu San, openly declared their intention to overthrow the dynasty,^[27] and considered attacking Kaifeng, the capital of Henan Province. The rebel commanders strictly prohibited their men from harming innocent civilians and established a more organized structure. This included dividing their estimated 130,000 soldiers^[27] into 28 brigades, each with its own commander and flag.^[28] In late 1511, the rebels launched attacks on county towns located on the border of Henan and Henan. Some towns were able to defend themselves, while others resorted to bribery in order to protect themselves from the rebels.^[29] In some cases, the rebels were able to pay off the defenders of the cities, allowing them to have free rein in both the cities and the surrounding countryside.^[16] However, despite their use of imperial rhetoric, the rebels were not very successful in their endeavors. This was especially true in the borderlands of Huguang and Henan, where the authorities had traditionally had weak control.^[26][c] On the other hand, the Liu brothers, who operated closer to the economically developed Jiangnan, formed alliances with local bandits and pirates, which proved to be more successful for them.^[26]

In January 1512, the government implemented new measures to combat the rebellion. The plan involved deploying soldiers from the capital to protect key centers, while units from the borders would launch attacks against the rebels. Local conscripts and militia were also enlisted to assist in the effort. Additionally, in February, the Emperor summoned five thousand native warriors from southern Huguang, who were known for their tenacity but also for their brutal treatment of the population.^[30]

In February and March 1512, the Liu brothers and Qi Yanming captured several locations in the Huaibei region (located north of the Huai River, an area that had been plagued by conflict since the 12th century). One of their main targets was the strategically important city of Pizhou, located on the Grand Canal.^[31]

In March–April 1512, Liu San and Zhao Sui launched attacks on more than two dozen cities in southeastern Henan, northeastern Huguang, and southwestern Nanzhi. Their success was short-lived as they lost the initiative in April due to unsuccessful fighting and disastrous river crossing attempts, which weakened their forces. By May, they were only able to gather 10,000 men for battle and were constantly pursued by imperial border guards, regular army, native troops, and militia. In June, the "Henan rebels" were defeated in a series of battles in northern Huguang, eastern Henan, and Nanzhi. Zhao Sui attempted to escape with two companions disguised as Buddhist monks, but was eventually captured on 30 June 1512 in a massive manhunt.^[32]

Meanwhile, the Liu brothers and Qi Yanming moved south to Huguang, where they "changed from horses to boats" and raided Hankou. The water did not bring them fortune, as on 12 June 1512, Liu the Sixth drowned when a gust of wind swept him off the deck and into the river.^[33] Liu the Seventh and Qi Yanming then sailed down the Yangtze River with eight hundred men^[34] and thirteen ships, attacking cities from Huangzhou to Yizhen. They sought support from local river pirates, as well as salt and tea smugglers, who operated in bands of several hundred or more.^[35] In a surprise attack on Guazhou in June 1512, the rebels burned the warships and captured a large quantity of weapons. Liu the Sixth then settled on Langshan (Wolf Hill) near Tongzhou on the north bank of the Yangtze River near its mouth.^[36] From there, he raided as far as the outskirts of Nanjing. On 28 August, the rebels' attack on Tongzhou failed,^[37] and the following night, an unprecedentedly destructive typhoon destroyed their fleet. They attempted to regroup on Langshan, but were attacked by the government army and massacred on 7 September 1512.^[34] Liu the Seventh died while fleeing in the waters of the Yangtze, as did Qi Yanming.^[38]

Although the suppression of the rebellion reduced the threat to the capital's security and supply, banditry remained a problem in Jiangxi, as well as in Henan and central Sichuan, for a decade.^[39]