Truce of Malestroit

Since the Norman Conquest of 1066, English monarchs had held titles and lands within France, the possession of which made them vassals of the kings of France. By the first quarter of the fourteenth century, the only sizeable French possession still held by the English in France was Gascony in the south west.^[1] Following a series of disagreements between Philip VI of France and Edward III of England, on 24 May 1337 Philip's Great Council agreed that the lands held by Edward III in France should be taken back into Philip's hands on the grounds that Edward was in breach of his obligations as a vassal. This marked the start of the Hundred Years' War, which was to last 116 years.^[2][3]

On 26 January 1340 Edward formally claimed the French throne. The immediate effect was to allow the Flemings to join his cause without technically disowning their fealty to the French crown and therefore becoming rebels. The extent to which Edward considered the claim more than a negotiating position is unclear. In June the French navy was annihilated by the English fleet at the battle of Sluys and in July Edward invaded France at the head of a large, heavily subsidised, allied army. The allies laid siege to Tournai on 1 August. On 7 September the French army arrived, but Philip held it back to ensure there was no risk of a battle occurring. He was probably aware that the allied army was falling apart, with the English unable to pay their allies what they had been promised, or even to feed them. Negotiations for a pause in the fighting were opened, mediated by emissaries of Pope Benedict XII. The Truce of Espléchin was rapidly agreed, to last from 25 September 1340 to 24 June 1341. The allied armies left France thereafter.^[4][5] Edward was unable to meet his commitments, the English Crown was bankrupt, and Edward fled the continent in order to avoid his creditors.^[6]

During the early 14th century Brittany was a province of France, but while the dukes of Brittany were vassals of the French kings they governed the duchy as independent rulers.^[8][9][10] When the Duke of Brittany, John III, died on 30 April 1341 he left a disputed succession, with both his niece, Joan of Penthièvre, and his younger half-brother, John of Montfort, claiming the dukedom; Joan was married to Charles of Blois, a nephew of the King of France.^[11][12][13] The French king correctly suspected that John was negotiating with the English, and had Charles declared the rightful heir on 7 September, despatching an army to support him.^[14][15][16]

On 12 September 1341 the Truce of Espléchin was extended to 24 June 1342. Edward and his council agreed that the English army would be disbanded for the winter and the fleet paid off. Meanwhile, the French army swiftly overran all of eastern Brittany apart from Rennes and captured John.^[17] John's wife, Joanna of Montfort, fled west with the ducal treasury and their two-year-old son, also named John, whom she set up as the faction's figurehead and heir to his father's claim to the duchy. She despatched a senior counsellor to England with a large sum in cash, to encourage rapid English military intervention.^[18][19][20]

On 21 February 1342 Edward sealed a treaty to support the Montfort cause, as an extension of the war with France.^[23][24] Edward planned to land in Brittany himself with a substantial force, after the expiry of the Truce of Espléchin in June, but had extreme difficulty in mustering ships.^{[note 1]} Eventually the English impressed 440 ships,^[27] but then contrary winds caused their departure to be repeatedly put back.^[28][19][29]

In May 1342 Clement VI became pope. He was strongly pro-French and had previously been one of Philip's senior advisers. He despatched two cardinals – Annibaldo Caetani, bishop of Frascati–Tusculum; and Pierre Desprès, bishop of Palestrina–Praeneste – to attempt to broker a permanent settlement of the Anglo-French war. They were well received by Philip in June, but Edward would not even allow them to cross the Channel.^[30][31][32] Instead he continued to gather ships and troops.^[33]

Meanwhile, the flow of events went against the Montfortists in the face of the huge military superiority of the French. By July Joanna was besieged in the port of Brest, the only fortified place still held by her faction.^[34] This was on the brink of surrender when the English advance force, commanded by William, Earl of Northampton, arrived on 18 August. The French commander, Charles of Blois, promptly broke off the siege, abandoned western Brittany and withdrew 70 miles (110 km) to Guingamp.^{[35][36][note 2]}

The English marched 30 miles (50 km) from Brest to Morlaix, a port on the north coast of Brittany with strong fortifications and a secure harbour, and laid siege to it.^[35][36] Edward's contingent was still in England waiting for the ships which had transported Northampton's echelon to return. The French mistakenly believed Edward's army would be used in northern France, probably disembarking in Picardy. A French army was gathered to confront this imagined threat, including many men transferred from Brittany. Charles became aware his force greatly outnumbered the English, despite the detachments to Picardy, and took his army west in an attempt to relieve Morlaix. He was defeated by Northampton on 30 September, suffering heavy losses.^{[38][note 3]} On 6 October Edward abandoned his siege train on the beach and set sail with those troops he was able to embark onto the available shipping. They reached Brittany after a storm-wracked three-week passage.^[41][42]

Nantes

Rennes

Hennebont

Vannes

Dol

Morlaix

Ploërmel

Dinan

Brest

Guingamp

Redon

Malestroit

Avranches

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A map of Brittany, with modern administrative boundaries, showing the locations of some of the places mentioned in the text

After concentrating at Brest, the English and Montfortist forces moved on the major city of Vannes, the second most populous settlement in Brittany, with a good harbour and strong walls. From Vannes a strong detachment could control much of southern Brittany. On 7 November both the navy and the army set off. The fleet was depleted by the desertion of most of its ships; their masters and crews were unhappy at not being paid and at being forced out to sea in dangerous winter weather.^[43][44][45] Those left sailed to Vannes, enduring a winter storm en route. They attempted to take the town with a surprise attack; this came close to success but was defeated.^[46][43][37] In England the King's Council attempted to organise a further fleet to carry supplies and reinforcements. Fifty-six ships sailed on or after 3 November carrying 600 men, but were driven ashore in the Isles of Scilly by further storms. They and 800 men who had not sailed waited for a break in the weather, fruitlessly: they were finally stood down in February 1343.^[47][43]

The main Anglo-Breton army marched unopposed some 120 miles (190 km) through southern Brittany and on 29 November attempted to take Vannes by storm. The French garrison had been newly reinforced and repelled this assault; a regular siege began.^[48] The siege did not require the entire army and large detachments were sent on chevauchees across eastern Brittany to devastate the region and capture the fortified places. The outskirts of Dinan and the area around Dol were devastated, 100 miles (160 km) north of Vannes.^[48] Ploërmel, Malestroit and Redon were captured and Nantes, the ducal capital, was besieged.^[49] Increasing numbers of Breton knights and lords switched their allegiance to the Montfortist cause. However, there were fewer than 5,000 English troops in Brittany, and the term of service of many was running out.^[47] No food supplies were arriving for Edward by sea, and although he sent out foraging columns over a broad area, living off the land in winter yielded thin returns. Edward's army was in difficulty.^[50][37]