United States Refugee Admissions Program

Origins and development

After World War II, U.S. refugee admission was an ad hoc. Non-governmental organizations such as the International Rescue Committee, the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS), and Church World Service played leading roles in early resettlement efforts.^[5]

The Displaced Persons Act of 1948 established the first legal framework for refugee admission, allowing the entry of over 400,000 displaced Europeans.^[6] Following the Vietnam War, the United States accepted large numbers of Indochinese refugees, prompting the Refugee Act of 1980, standardizing refugee admissions and establishing a uniform resettlement structure.^[7]

Since 1980, over three million refugees have been admitted to the United States under the Act.^[8]

21st century developments

Refugee admissions fluctuated in the 2010s and 2020s. In 2017, Executive Order 13769 temporarily suspended refugee admissions and reduced the annual ceiling. The limit was later raised under the Biden administration to 125,000 for fiscal years 2022–2025.^[9] In October 2025, the Trump administration lowered the annual ceiling to 7,500, the lowest in the history of the program.^[10] These changes reflect debates over humanitarian responsibility, border security, and the capacity of federal and local institutions to support refugee resettlement.^[11]

Legal definition and eligibility

Under the Immigration and Nationality Act, a refugee is a person unable or unwilling to return to their country of nationality due to persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution based on race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion.^[12]

Applicants must be referred by the UNHCR, a U.S. embassy, or a designated NGO, and undergo multi-stage security and medical screening before admission.

Socioeconomic effects

Refugees in the United States decrease crime rates and contribute to long-term economic growth, generating more tax revenue than the cost of federal assistance programs.^[13][14][15]

Refugees’ economic outcomes improve over time when policies support labor market integration, language training, and recognition of prior skills. Long-term impacts depend on local and federal integration capacity.^[16]

Ongoing challenges

There are systemic challenges in coordination among agencies, case processing delays, and inconsistent access to local services.^[17] Key issues include insufficient funding for local integration programs, uneven English-language training, and gaps in medical care for vulnerable populations.^[18] Research has also noted that cumulative migration and resettlement stressors can erode coping resources, contribute to social isolation, and deepen marginalization among refugee families in the United States.^[19]

Government entities

USRAP is a collaborative effort among many agencies and departments of the U.S. federal government and a number of non-profit organizations.^[20] Three entities make up the federal arm of the USRAP program: USCIS, part of the Department of Homeland Security; the Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration, part of the Department of State; and the Office of Refugee Resettlement, part of the Department of Health and Human Services.^[20]

Other involved agencies include:

• Department of State/Population, Refugees, and Migration: Having management responsibility overseas and has led in proposing admissions ceilings and processing priorities.^[21]
• United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees: Refers cases for resettlement and provides information regarding the worldwide refugee situation.^[21]
• Resettlement Support Centers: International organizations that collect and process information, such as file preparation and storage, data collection, and out-processing activities.^[21]
• Department of Homeland Security: U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services adjudicates applications for refugee status and reviews case decisions; the Bureau of Customs and Border Protection screens arriving refugees at the port of entry.^[21]
• International Organization for Migration: Department of State contractors serve primarily as travel agents in certain locations.^[21]
• Non-Governmental Organizations: Provide resettlement assistance and services to arriving refugees.^[21]

Non-profit affiliates

Ten nonprofits are appointed to work in refugee referrals or resettlement:^[25]

• Bethany Christian Services
• Church World Service
• Episcopal Migration Ministries
• Ethiopian Community Development Council
• HIAS (Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society)
• International Rescue Committee
• Lutheran Immigration and Refugee Service
• United States Conference of Catholic Bishops
• U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants
• World Relief

Each nonprofit helps refugees become self-sufficient in the United States, providing housing, food, clothing, school enrollment, English language classes, employment, health screenings, and public services.^[26] Non-profits ensure refugees access essential services and integrate successfully, though resources are uneven resources across locations.

Budget and funding

During 2011, USRAP received $302 million from the federal government to fund its programs.^[29] Funding increased to $417 million in 2012, then dropped back to $310 million in 2013.^[29] Some money funds public and private non-profit organizations providing initial services and assisting refugees to achieve self-sufficiency.^[30]

Refugee eligibility

According to USRAP, "A refugee is someone who has fled from his or her home country and cannot return because he or she has a well-founded fear of persecution based on religion, race, nationality, political opinion or membership in a particular social group."^[31] Once a refugee has fled their country, there is an intensive process before they can be admitted into the United States. The process aims to take eight months to a year, but actually takes much longer.^[31] Once a refugee has been admitted, the sponsoring organization is responsible for helping them adapt to their new life.

Cash assistance

The USRAP cash assistance program has come under scrutiny for not considering individual circumstances, with the level of support being essentially random.^[32] Depending on their location, some refugees are given transportation assistance, Temporary Assistance for Needy Families support, and local community assistance, while other refugees are given the bare minimum of federal funding. This inequitable allocation leads to the successful integration of some refugees while others are left behind.^[33]: 11

Employment

The purpose of cash assistance is to help refugees find employment. This goal, however, is frequently not achieved. "…The cash assistance received was not enough to cover basic expenses and often ran out long before employment was secured."^[34]: 20 Limited time and funding for support can shorten the employment assistance period, sometimes to less than six months. This lack of time and funding results in a push for quick, insufficient employment rather than full, sustaining careers.

Refugees are often placed in short-term jobs that may not match their skills, education, or experience. The reason behind this push is that the goal is not that of long-term self-sustainability, but rather of self-sustainability by the end of the "eight"-month refugee assistance.^[34]

These short-term jobs have above minimum wage pay, but the average wage per hour for full-time workers obtained by refugees within four months of arrival was $8.67 in 2009.^[35]: 24 This rate is insufficient for refugees who provide for their families. Many face eviction and eventual unemployment.^[36]: 12 This quick employment issue greatly affects the refugees' ability to be self-sustaining."^[35]: 20 In fiscal year 2007, ORR's performance data show that between 59 percent and 65 percent of all refugees receiving cash assistance from ORR's four assistance programs entered employment within 4 to 8 months of coming to the United States. There are mechanisms in place to allow for refugees to transfer their professional degrees; however, these transfers require recertification that costs as much as $1,000.^[34]: 24 Research shows that refugees’ employment outcomes vary based on their education and work experience, as well as how effectively local agencies coordinate services. Over time, refugees often contribute more in taxes than the federal support they initially receive.^[37]

English language

If a refugee cannot speak English, their job possibilities decrease. "The ability to speak English can greatly facilitate a refugee's chances of finding employment."^[35]: 27 USRAP does provide English language classes. There is, however, a wide array of problems with these classes: inadequate facilities, no longevity, poor teacher quality, and lack of transportation to classes.^[35]: 27

Because of the large percentage of refugees that need English classes, facilities are not expansive enough to cover the need.^{[36]: 20–21} "Limited funding means training provision typically stops at English language training during the early resettlement period".^[33]: 13 This correlates directly with the refugee's ability to obtain employment. Approximately 90 percent of refugees who were living on government welfare programs did not speak English.^[35]: 27

It is also important to note that access to English classes and integration programs varies widely depending on the location, meaning some refugees receive strong support while others face significant gaps.

Healthcare

In addition to employment assistance, USRAP is also responsible for the health, both mental and physical, of refugees entering the United States. According to our bylaws, refugee resettlement agencies are".^[38]

This responsibility becomes a problem when a high percentage of entering refugees have health issues. As the literature points out, this is a growing reality for the United States: "The number of refugees with chronic untreated medical and mental health conditions continues to grow. Needy refugees who do not qualify for Medicaid are limited to up to eight months of Refugee Medical Assistance (RMA)."^[36]: 20 There are reasons why so many refugees suffer from poor mental and physical health:

Because the United States has admitted an increased number of refugees who have spent many years living in difficult conditions, such as refugee camps, a larger proportion of recently arrived refugees have health and other issues that make it difficult for them to work and achieve self-sufficiency.

As one article posited, this rise in mental illness among refugees calls for better training for psychologists in working with diverse populations: hopefully, with better training, psychologists of refugees will be able to better address their specific health needs. USRAP has an obligation to improve health services for the incoming refugee population.

U.S. foreign policy issues

At times, the United States foreign policy has had negative implications for the lives of the refugees that USRAP aims to serve. Although official United States procedure states that foreign policy should have no impact on refugee admissions, this has not always been the case.^[39]: 393 For example, after 9/11, some Afghan refugee arrivals were delayed due to security concerns.^[39]: 391

This use of refugee admissions programs to further national interests is, unfortunately, not uncommon. Historical refugee admissions policies sometimes excluded refugees due to political or economic concerns.^[39]: 395 This treatment was justified by some because of fears concerning the refugees' possible impacts on the American economy.^[39]: 395During the Cold War, refugee admissions were also influenced by geopolitical goals.

However, the interplay between United States refugee admissions and foreign policy is not entirely one-sided. A 2012 USRAP report to Congress states that United States involvement in discussions and actions concerning refugee resettlement has given the United States the opportunity to advance human rights as well as influence other countries to be more open to accepting refugees.^[40] The example given in the report is that of Bhutanese refugees. Because the United States offered resettlement, other countries demonstrated a greater willingness to accept refugees as well.^[40]

Local government issues

USRAP also faces challenges with domestic resettlement policies. A report, The report Abandoned Upon Arrival highlights challenges faced by local communities, points out that local communities have confronted many challenges due to refugee resettlement. In the study, seven main findings were reported concerning the local resettlement communities.

First, the federal government uses "faith-based groups," for refugee placement.^[41]: 8 Local agencies are required to regularly consult with local governments. Receiving new refugees into a community requires numerous resources from the local government, but these local governments are not given enough funding from the federal government. They are also not informed as to how many new refugees they are going to receive. This has been a heavy burden for the local governments.

Second, the refugees' language barriers, caused by a lack of adequate language instruction, prevent the refugees from communicating effectively concerning important issues such as health. USDHS conducted a study in 2008, showing that the better language skills refugees have, the better outcomes they obtain.^[42] Schools often cannot provide extra English instruction due to a lack of government funding.^[43]

Third, regardless of each refugee's situation in regards to education, health, or psychological background, the government has applied a "one-size-fits-all assistance" approach.^[41]: 9 This impedes the local governments' ability to accommodate the refugees according to their needs, and to prepare or teach them in areas where they are weak.

Fourth, while the Federal Government has increased funding for refugees, this does not fix the current problems.^[41]: 9

Fifth, insufficient funding after initial support for resettlement has created a difficult economic climate for the local communities.

Sixth, the current resettlement system not only is a burden, but also inhibits services for other refugees who have already been resettled.

In order to help the cities and refugees with these problems, this study suggests seven strategies for improvement: (1) ensure the local leaders involvement in decision-making processes, (2) provide better language courses, (3) establishing strategies in education, (4) remove "one-size-fits-all assistance", (5) improve accountability, (6) search for innovative models, and (7) promote community engagement.^{[41]: 4–6}

Administrative issues

Program fragmentation and poor coordination among agencies create unnecessary burdens for refugees and local communities, making it harder for them to access services. These issues include essential quantitative or qualitative data that are missing or have not been released to further support service programs that could continue to provide aid, care systems that inhibit access to supportive services due to personal bias, and an employment-first approach to refugee resettlement that fails to acknowledge and accommodate the financial and educational inequities faced by refugees.