User:CapeVerdeWave/1935 Labor Day hurricane

The storm arose from a low-pressure area first noted northeast of the Turks and Caicos Islands, an island chain in the Lucayan Archipelago, on August 29.^[a][2] Due to reports showing an organized system,^[3] the hurricane databases (HURDAT), a record of tropical cyclone data overseen by the National Hurricane Center (NHC), initiate a tropical depression about 200 mi (320 km) northeast of Grand Turk Island, as judged by the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project. The storm moved slowly west-northwest for a day,^[4] during which the U.S. Weather Bureau noticed a closed center.^[5] It then turned west, becoming a tropical storm a day later, and crossed the southeastern Bahamas with winds of up to 45 mph (75 km/h). Late that day, it underwent a phase of rapid intensification, becoming a minimal hurricane 24 hours later,^[4] though its small size eluded forecasters' efforts to track its path and intensity.^[6] The storm hit the southern tip of Andros, an island in the southwestern Bahamas, with winds of 75–85 mph (120–140 km/h), equal to Category 1 on the Saffir–Simpson scale,^[4] though neither ships nor land-based weather stations clocked gales.^[3]

On September 2 the storm entered the Straits of Florida and strengthened further. It deepened at a redoubled rate, attaining winds of at least 115 mph (185 km/h); these made it a major hurricane, Category 3 or above on the Saffir–Simpson scale.^[4] Late that day a barometer aboard the ship Dixie measured an air pressure of 27.28 inHg (924 mb) in the storm's calm eye,^[2][7] implying sustained winds of 155 mph (250 km/h) based on pressure–wind relations.^[3] On September 3 the storm veered sharply northwest, toward the Florida Keys, and made landfall on Craig Key at 02:00 UTC.^[8] A barometer there recorded 26.35 inHg (892 mb),^[9] the lowest to date in the Western Hemisphere.^[10] The storm was very compact, with a 30-mile (48 km) hurricane-force wind radius,^[5] and its eye was 8 mi (13 km) across,^[11] evidencing a smaller-than-usual radius of maximum wind. Offset by a sluggish motion, these factors indicated pressure-deduced winds of 185 mph (295 km/h), as shown by reanalysis,^[3] though concurrent estimates ranged up to 200 mph (320 km/h) or higher.^[b][13][14]

After landfall, the storm paralleled Southwest Florida for a day, gradually weakening as it did so. It then turned northward to the west of Tampa Bay, shedding major hurricane status;^[4] its size also enlarged as well.^[11] At 22:00 UTC it made landfall south of Steinhatchee, about 40 mi (65 km) northwest of Cedar Key, with winds of 100 mph (155 km/h).^[8] Over a day and a half it curved inland over Georgia and the Carolinas, marked by prolific rains and severe weather.^[5] It lost hurricane winds over land, degenerating into a moderate tropical storm, and with time curled eastward over the Southeastern U.S., exiting the coastal plain near Norfolk, Virginia, on September 6. Moving offshore, it quickly regained hurricane force,^[4] based on marine observations. On September 7 it morphed into a nontropical cyclone, peaking with winds of 90 mph (150 km/h). Over the next few days it accelerated east-northeast, passing well south and east of the Maritimes.^[3] During this timeframe ships measured pressures down to 28.02 inHg (949 mb).^[11] On September 9 the storm phased with a nearby trough and began bending northwest. The next day it weakened into a gale center and lost its identity about 250 mi (400 km) southeast of southern Greenland.^[4]

Starting on August 30, the U.S. Weather Bureau issued 13 advisories in three days. On September 1 it advised Floridians to ready for storm conditions between Fort Pierce and Fort Myers.^[21] The Miami Coast Guard station sent a few airplanes along the coast to advise boaters and campers of the impending danger by dropping messages. The planes were later stored in hangars for safekeeping.^[22] Ships were notified beforehand and took evasive action, limiting in-situ reports that might have located the storm. Based on its track, forecasters initially expected the storm to hit northern Cuba.^[23] Historian Jay Barnes described its trek toward Florida as "stealthlike", noting that a day before landfall official bulletins said it was of sub-hurricane status.^[24] As late as September 1 the storm was predicted to avoid Florida,^[25] and next day the weather bureau grossly underrated its strength, saying it was "far less" intense than the 1926 and 1928 storms.^[26]: 1 Nonetheless, Keys residents secured belongings, shuttered windows, and bolted entryways.^[25] Pilot reports revealed the storm was farther north than forecast, as proved by a Cuban Army Air Corps flight. Led by Capt. Leonard Povey, it was solicited by the nation's storm observatory to verify other aircraft. Data relayed by the Curtis Hawk II—the first use of reconnaissance to track cyclones—prompted the weather bureau to display hurricane warnings in Florida,^[c][23] including the area from Key West to Key Largo.^[31]

The FEC Railway allotted a train to relieve 700 World War I veterans, including Bonus Marchers, working on the Overseas Highway as part of a defunct Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) project;^[32] however, the train was sent two to three hours later than planned.^[33] It departed Miami at 4:25 p.m. local time; delayed by a draw bridge opening, obstructions across the track, poor visibility and the necessity to back the locomotive below Homestead (so it could head out on the return trip^[d]), the train finally arrived at the Islamorada station on Upper Matecumbe Key at about 8:08–8:20 p.m.^[35] As the storm passed the Keys, locals deserted coastal sites in the western peninsula.^[36]: 1

In the Bahamas, the colonial government reported that the cyclone caused minor damage to property, but no injuries or fatalities.^[41] Winds in the islands peaked at 34 mph (55 km/h), and the lowest barometer read 29.48 inHg (998 mb) on Long Island.^[5] A vessel was disabled and its crew freed.^[42] Additionally, the Climatological Data journal noted that "... there was one report of some damage on the extreme southern end of Andros Island".^[5] Rough seas impacted the north coast of Cuba, while the storm also caused some impacts in Camagüey and Santa Clara provinces due to overflowing inland streams.^[43]

The hurricane produced squalls and sustained winds up to 45 mph (72 km/h) on Key West, causing little damage.^[44] Similarly, mostly minor impacts occurred on Big Pine and No Name keys, aside from winds blowing away tar paper roofs and ripping window screens. In Marathon, the hurricane demolished a large fish house on Boot Key. Many dwellings lost their roofs, while some others were destroyed. A school building also suffered damage to its roof and some doors and windows, while an FEC Railway dredge was swept about three blocks inland. One fisherman in Marathon died. Significant damage occurred to a fish house on Key Vaca, where water reached up to 8 ft (2.4 m) above ground, causing the death of one person. Extensive washouts to the railway and roads were reported on Crawl and Grassy keys. Waves swept away four people on the latter. Additionally, a report by the Florida Emergency Relief Administration noted that "the only thing standing on this key is one-half of the white foreman's house".^[45]

In the Upper Florida Keys, the hurricane left a path of near-total destruction, centered on what is today the village of Islamorada,^[46] although the hurricane's destructive path was narrower than most tropical cyclones.^[47] Its fiercest winds extended 20 mi (32 km) off the center,^[46] similar to 1992's Hurricane Andrew, which was also a relatively small and catastrophic Category 5 hurricane.^[48] The Florida section of Climatological Data stated that the Upper Florida Keys experienced winds from 150 to 200 mph (240 to 320 km/h), while gusts probably went above 200 mph (320 km/h);^[5] wind engineers at the time suggested peak gusts neared 250 mph (400 km/h), based on damage.^[49] The velocities propelled sand grains, causing luminous static electricity.^[50] Tides reached high enough to wash away crossties and railroad tracks of the FEC Railway, which had viaducts that were 30 ft (9.1 m) above the average water level.^[5] Additionally, storm surge ranged from 18 to 20 ft (5.5 to 6.1 m) in height,^[51] though reliable tidal data in the area were absent.^[52] Wave heights added to the surge by a large but unknown amount, further aided by impoundment on the FEC Railway bank.^[53]

The cyclone destroyed most of a fishing camp and a hotel, the railway, and vegetation on Long Key. The few buildings that remained standing were moved by the storm surge.^[54] On the tiny island of Craig Key, a post office, home, and marina were demolished, while the bridge tender's house suffered damage.^[55] Following a damage assessment conducted by Dr. R. E. Christie, a Red Cross volunteer director from Miami, he reported that a 12 mi (19 km)-stretch of the Upper Florida Keys from Lower Matecumbe Key to Tavernier was "washed as clean as a billiard table by the tidal wave".^[56] The eye of the storm passed a few miles to the southwest creating a calm of about 40 minutes duration over Lower Matecumbe and 55 minutes (9:20–10:15 p.m.) over Long Key. At Camp #3 on Lower Matecumbe the surge arrived near the end of the calm with the wind close behind.^[57] Nearly every structure was demolished, and some bridges and railway embankments were washed away. The links—rail, road, and ferry boats—that chained the islands together were broken.^[e][58]

On Upper Matecumbe Key, near Islamorada, the eleven-car evacuation train encountered a powerful storm surge topped by cresting waves;^[53] this coincided with an abrupt wind shift from the northeast (Florida Bay) to southeast (Atlantic Ocean) and the arrival on the coast of the surge.^[2] All the cars^[f] were swept from the tracks, leaving only the locomotive and tender upright and still on the rails. Remarkably, everyone on the train survived.^[g] The locomotive and tender were both barged back to Miami several months later. Storm surge and abnormally high tides also removed just over 2 mi (3.2 km) of fill between Lower and Upper Matecumbe Key, restoring the natural channel between the two islands.^[55] Captain Ed Butters on Upper Matecumbe Key claimed that his barometer fell to 880 mbar (26 inHg). However, this could not be verified because Captain Butters tossed the instrument into the storm under distress. Thus, the observation of 892 mbar (26.3 inHg) recorded on Craig Key remains the lowest barometric pressure associated with the hurricane.^[61] Only a bathtub remained of the Carribee Colony tourist camp, while the storm severed off the second floor of the Hotel Matecumbe.^[62]

An account by Ernest Hemingway noted that "not a blade of grass" remained on Indian Key.^[63] However, at Alligator Reef Lighthouse, located about 5 mi (10 km) to the southeast, a large glass plane remained intact.^[55] On Windley Key, 40 people sheltered in a makeshift veterans hospital were forced to move to the second floor due to storm surge flooding, before the building was eventually destroyed.^[64] Five or six washouts occurred along the highway from Snake Creek (between Windley Key and Plantation Key) to Key Largo.^[65] Tides at Tavernier reached 15.2 ft (4.6 m) above mean sea level at a train station, or roughly 6 ft (1.8 m) above ground.^[66] Approximately 30 out of the 50 residences in Tavernier were virtually demolished.^[67] Farther north on Key Largo, the Card Sound Bridge was washed out. Florida Road Department chief engineer J. H. Dowling estimated that throughout the Florida Keys, the hurricane destroyed approximately 15 mi (25 km) of the Overseas Highway.^[68]

Three ships were reported to have run aground in the Florida Keys during the storm. The Danish motorship Leise Maersk was carried over and grounded nearly 4 miles away near Upper Matecumbe Key, although there was no loss of life. The engine room was flooded and the ship was disabled. The American tanker Pueblo lost control near 24°40′N 80°25′W around 2 pm on September 2 and was pushed around the storm's center, ending up in Molasses Reef nearly eight hours later. The passenger steamship Dixie ran aground on French Reef.^[h] She was re-floated and towed to New York on September 19. No fatalities resulted from the incident.^[2]

Parts of southeast Florida, including Miami and West Palm Beach, mainly experienced downed trees, signs, and powerlines, leaving some people without electricity.^[71][72] However, sustained winds estimated at 80 mph (130 km/h) in Homestead led to substantial crop damage in southern Dade County, while a warehouse was partially deroofed and numerous trees littered the road to the Florida Keys.^[73] Losses to crops in the vicinity of Homestead ranged from $400,000 to $600,000.^[74]

Around Cape Sable, the storm destroyed many structures and crops and severely injured three people at Flamingo.^[37] The storm effaced all sign of human activity at the latter, including fixed dwellings, and destroyed a coconut grove on the cape. An aerial survey by ornithologist Alexander Sprunt Jr.^[i] found that "not a stick or stone remains" of Flamingo.^[76] Two deaths occurred on the cape, and the ruins of Fort Poinsett were swept away. Several bodies from the Keys washed ashore as well.^[77] Mahogany trees were damaged, many of which succumbed to wildfires after the storm. A row of seven royal palms perished, except for one tree that later died in the 1960s.^[78] Mangrove swamps around the cape were desolated,^[79] with only skeletal remains left.^[80] Trees were debarked and denuded, notably on and below the lower Shark River.^[81] The remnant forest, along with nearby vegetation that survived, was later wrecked by Hurricane Donna in 1960.^[82]

In Collier County, Seminole camps suffered damage due to high winds and floods, while the roads leading from the Tamiami Trail to Marco Island and Everglades City were left impassable due to being submerged.^[83] Everglades City itself was inundated with up to 2 ft (0.61 m) of water, but no noteworthy damage occurred other than to wires, trees, and vegetation.^[84] The hurricane destroyed over half of Naples's 1,000 ft (300 m) fishing pier.^[83] One person died on State Road 80 near the Hendry–Lee county line when a bus overturned in rainy conditions. The latter also reported damage to approximately 25% of citrus crops, several unroofed buildings, and numerous toppled trees. Rainfall inundated some streets along the Caloosahatchee River with up to 2 ft (0.61 m) of water.^[85] The hurricane deroofed several homes on Gasparilla Island, including at Boca Grande, causing most people on the island to evacuate.^[86]

Despite wind gusts reaching 65 mph (105 km/h), Tampa held municipal elections on September 3. A two-story building housing a voting precinct was destroyed, while many other polling places lost electricity, forcing voting to be conducted in candlelight. Throughout the city, the hurricane downed wires, signs, and trees, and washed out roads in a number of places. The Ybor City neighborhood reported the deroofing of a post office and the shattering of windows at several businesses.^[87] Along Florida's gulf coast, the hurricane impacted Cedar Key particularly severely. Nearly all roofs experienced at least minor damage, many of which were blown off, while winds also downed many trees and power lines. The cyclone also severely damaged docks and fishing vessels. Three deaths occurred in the town,^[3] which experienced its most significant storm surge since 1896.^[11]

Florida governor David Sholtz described Horseshoe Beach in Dixie County as "completely isolated, with nearly every home there destroyed". A loss of roughly 80% of commercial timber occurred in neighboring Taylor County, where approximately 300 families became homeless.^[88] In Gainesville, a large pine tree struck an engineering department building at the University of Florida.^[89] Governor Sholtz also reported high winds and that "all communications facilities have been disrupted" in Tallahassee.^[90] The storm brought over 5 in (130 mm) of rain to parts of Georgia when it passed over the state between September 4–5. The heavy rainfall in southern Georgian counties led to the spoilage of cotton. Attendant winds also ruined crops and inflicted minor damage to property,^[91] including a power line falling on a store in Quitman, which set the building on fire. Barometric pressures fell to 980 mbar (28.9 inHg) at Valdosta, the lowest ever recorded there.^[92]

Property damage along the coastal regions of South Carolina amounted to $15,000, with the damage primarily occurring in the vicinity of Beaufort, Georgetown, and Walterboro. Damage to crops in South Carolina was also considerable, with high winds blowing down cotton, corn, sugar cane, and other unharvested crops. Windthrown trees also injured several people.^[93] In North Carolina, several houses in New Bern were set ablaze after the storm toppled many power lines and poles. The downed power lines also led to two deaths.^[94] Another fatality occurred in North Carolina near Gastonia due to blinding rains preventing a driver from seeing an oncoming train.^[95] Corn suffered heavy losses in Virginia, contributing the bulk of the state's $1.65 million crop damage toll.^[3] A tornado in Farmville killed two people and another twister in Courtland caused one fatality after destroying a home.^[95] The former tornado also impacted Hampden–Sydney College, deroofing an administration building, unrooting ancient oak trees, and tossing approximately 20 headstones from a cemetery on the school's property.^[94]

Although winds had decreased over land by the time the storm reached the Mid-Atlantic states, the storm brought excessive rainfall that caused substantial damage to the region's crops. The storm became the wettest tropical cyclone on record for ten counties in Maryland and two counties in Delaware, with rainfall totals peaking between 15–16 in (380–410 mm); the highest measured rainfall total was 16.63 in (422 mm) in Easton, Maryland.^[96] Approximately 1,000 people along the Eastern Shore fled their homes due to flooding.^[97] Impacts from the storm in Maryland and Delaware were primarily concentrated in the southern portions of the two states; the cost of the damage amounted to around $2 million, including losses of $1 million in Caroline County, Maryland.^[96] High tides and heavy rains over South New Jersey flooded parts of Cape May County, with knee-high water leaving many families marooned. Four communities lost electricity after lightning struck a transformer in Sea Isle City. Many boats were submerged at Stone Harbor and Ocean City.^[98]

After the third day of the storm corpses swelled and split open in the subtropical heat, according to rescue workers. Public health officials ordered plain wood coffins holding the dead to be stacked and burned in several locations^{[citation needed]}. The National Weather Service estimated up to 409 deaths from the hurricane,^[1] while the Red Cross counted 416, besides 106 injuries. Some estimates of the dead topped 500. Many bodies went unrecovered,^[99] and 90 others were unidentifiable.^[100] Bodies were recovered as far away as Flamingo^{[citation needed]} and Cape Sable on the southwest tip of the Florida mainland.^[101] The United States Coast Guard and other federal and state agencies organized evacuation and relief efforts. Boats and airplanes carried injured survivors to Miami. The railroad was never rebuilt, but temporary bridges and ferry landings were under construction as soon as materials arrived. On March 29, 1938, the last gap in the Overseas Highway linking Key West to the mainland was completed. The new highway incorporated the roadbed and surviving bridges of the railway.^{[citation needed]}

• List of Atlantic hurricane records
• List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes

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