Second Vatican Council

Biblical movement

Pope Pius XII's 1943 encyclical Divino afflante Spiritu encouraged Catholic biblical scholars to use original-language texts and modern methods of textual study rather than relying exclusively on the Latin Vulgate.^[6] The encyclical gave new impetus to Catholic biblical studies and formed part of the intellectual background to the council's teaching on scripture in Dei verbum.^[7]

Ressourcement and nouvelle théologie

In the decades before Vatican II, several Catholic theologians called for renewed attention to biblical, patristic, and liturgical sources. This movement, often called ressourcement, was associated with figures including Henri de Lubac, Yves Congar, Jean Daniélou, Marie-Dominique Chenu, and Hans Urs von Balthasar.^[7]

The movement was contested in the 1940s and 1950s. In 1950, Pius XII issued Humani generis, which criticised theological tendencies he considered harmful to Catholic doctrine. The encyclical did not name individual theologians.^[8] In the years that followed, some theologians associated with these currents faced restrictions on teaching or publication. De Lubac and Congar were later appointed as theological experts at Vatican II, and theologians who had earlier faced suspicion became influential in the council's work.^[9]

First Vatican Council

The First Vatican Council opened on 8 December 1869 and was adjourned on 20 September 1870 after Italian forces captured Rome during the course of Italian unification.^[10] The council completed its teaching on the papacy and on the relationship between faith and reason, but other subjects, including the theology of the episcopate and the role of the laity, remained undeveloped. Bokenkotter describes these as among the unfinished questions later taken up by the Second Vatican Council.^[11] Pope Paul VI also described Vatican II as continuing work left incomplete by Vatican I.^{[12]: Paragraph 30}

The council also took place during the social, political, economic, and technological changes in the mid-twentieth century. Some bishops sought new pastoral approaches to those changes.^[13]

Announcement and expectations

John XXIII announced his intention to convene an ecumenical council on 25 January 1959, while addressing a group of cardinals at the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome. The announcement came less than three months after his election and surprised many of those present.^[14]

John XXIII described the council in terms of three overlapping goals: renewal of the Catholic Church through aggiornamento, progress toward Christian unity, and the Church's contribution to the resolution of social and political problems.^[15][16]

The council was formally called by the apostolic constitution Humanae Salutis on 25 December 1961. Nearly 2,500 bishops ultimately attended as Council Fathers, joined by auditors, observers, and theological advisers.^[2]

Preparation

Preparation for the council lasted from 1959 to 1962.^[17] The first year was the antepreparatory period. On 17 May 1959, John XXIII appointed an antepreparatory commission to consult bishops, Catholic universities and theological faculties, and departments of the Roman Curia about subjects that might be discussed at the council.

The next two years were the preparatory period. On 5 June 1960, ten preparatory commissions were created.^[18] These bodies produced draft texts, known as schemas, for discussion by the bishops. Most commissions were linked to departments of the Curia and were chaired by the cardinal who headed the corresponding department. The schemas were later reviewed by a Central Preparatory Commission.^[19]

The preparatory schemes varied in tone and content. Those prepared by the liturgical commission and the Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity reflected a stronger emphasis on renewal than most of the others.^[20]

Organisation

Council Fathers. All Catholic bishops, together with the heads of major male religious orders, were entitled to participate as Council Fathers, with the right to speak and vote. About 2,900 were eligible, though not all were able to attend.^[21]

General Congregations. The Council Fathers met in daily sessions, known as General Congregations, to discuss and vote on the schemas. These meetings took place in St. Peter's Basilica. Votes generally required a two-thirds majority.^[22]

Public Sessions. Public Sessions were formal gatherings at which the pope was present and documents were promulgated. Ten public sessions were held during the council.^[22]

Official periti. Theological and canonical experts, known as periti, advised the bishops and assisted in the drafting and revision of texts. Several theologians who had previously faced restrictions, including Congar and de Lubac, served as experts at the council.^[9]

Observers. Pope John XXIII invited Orthodox and Protestant churches and ecclesial communities to send observers to the council. Their presence became part of the council's ecumenical character.^[21][23]

Lay auditors. A small number of lay people were invited to attend as auditors beginning with the second session. Women were admitted as auditors during the third session.^[24]

Main groups and figures

During the opening weeks of the council, different tendencies among the Council Fathers became visible. Some participants favoured substantial revision of the preparatory schemas, while others preferred a more limited programme of change.^[25][26]

Bishops associated with more conservative positions included:^[27]

• Cardinal Alfredo Ottaviani, secretary of the Holy Office
• Cardinal Michael Browne OP
• Cardinal Giuseppe Siri, archbishop of Genoa
• Cardinal Ernesto Ruffini, archbishop of Palermo
• Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre CSSp

Bishops associated with reform-minded positions included:^[28]

• Cardinal Augustin Bea SJ, president of the Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity
• Patriarch Maximos IV Sayegh, patriarch of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church
• Cardinal Achille Liénart, bishop of Lille
• Cardinal Josef Frings, archbishop of Cologne
• Cardinal Bernardus Alfrink, archbishop of Utrecht
• Cardinal Leo Jozef Suenens, archbishop of Mechelen-Brussels
• Cardinal Franz König, archbishop of Vienna
• Cardinal Julius Döpfner, archbishop of Munich and Freising

Influential theologians at the council included:^[9]

• Marie-Dominique Chenu OP
• Henri de Lubac SJ
• Yves Congar OP
• Karl Rahner SJ
• John Courtney Murray SJ
• Edward Schillebeeckx OP
• Joseph Ratzinger, later Pope Benedict XVI
• Hans Küng

Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy

Sacrosanctum Concilium, the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, was the first document promulgated by the council. It was approved by a vote of 2,147 to 4 and promulgated by Paul VI on 4 December 1963.^[34] Hahnenberg describes it as the blueprint for the reform of the Latin Church's liturgy.^[35]

The document described the liturgy as the "summit toward which the activity of the Church is directed" and the "font from which all her power flows" (SC 10). It called for the "full and active participation" of the faithful in liturgical celebration (SC 14).^[36] It also called for a broader use of scripture and for simplification of rites. It permitted a wider use of vernacular languages while stating that Latin was to be preserved in the Latin rites (SC 36).^[37] The implementation of liturgical reform after the council involved decisions that went beyond what the constitution itself required.^[38]

Dogmatic Constitution on the Church

The Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Lumen gentium, was promulgated by Paul VI on 21 November 1964. It presented the Church as mystery, sacrament, People of God, and hierarchical communion.^[39]

A central theme of the document was the universal call to holiness. The constitution stated that all all Christians, whatever their state or rank, are called to the fullness of Christian life and to the perfection of charity (LG 40).^[40] Paul VI later described this as "the most characteristic and ultimate purpose of the teachings of the Council".^[41]

The document also developed the council's teaching on bishops and episcopal collegiality, affirming that bishops, in communion with the pope, share responsibility for the universal Church.^[42]

Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation

Dei verbum, the Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation, was promulgated on 18 November 1965. It addressed revelation, scripture, tradition, and biblical interpretation.^[43]

The document stated that scripture and tradition form one sacred deposit of the word of God and that authentic interpretation belongs to the Church's teaching office. It described the study of scripture as "the soul of sacred theology" (DV 24) and encouraged the faithful's access to scripture.^[44]

Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World

Gaudium et spes, the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, was promulgated on 7 December 1965. It treated the Church's relationship with modern society, including human dignity, marriage and family, culture, economics, politics, peace, and war.^[45]

The document developed themes from Lumen gentium, particularly the understanding of the Church as the People of God. It used the phrase "signs of the times" to describe the task of reading contemporary circumstances in light of the Gospel.^[46]

Decrees and declarations on the Church

• The Pastoral Office of Bishops. The decree Christus Dominus addressed the role of bishops and dioceses in light of the council's teaching on collegiality.^[47]

• The Ministry and Life of Priests. The decree Presbyterorum ordinis described the ministry and life of priests, including their relationship to bishops, the Eucharist, preaching, and pastoral care.^[48]

• Priestly Training. The decree Optatam totius called for programmes of priestly formation to be adapted to local circumstances under the authority of episcopal conferences and the Holy See.^[49]

• The Adaptation and Renewal of Religious Life. The decree Perfectae caritatis called religious institutes to renew themselves through a return to their founding charisms and adaptation to changed conditions.^[50]

• The Apostolate of the Laity. The decree Apostolicam actuositatem discussed the mission of lay Catholics in the Church and in the world, treating apostolic activity in family life, social life, politics, culture, and charitable work.^[51]

• The Eastern Catholic Churches. The decree Orientalium Ecclesiarum affirmed the status of the Eastern Catholic Churches as particular Churches with their own liturgical, theological, spiritual, and disciplinary traditions.^[52]

• Christian Education. The declaration Gravissimum educationis addressed Christian education, Catholic schools, and the right of parents in education. O'Malley writes that dissatisfaction with the text was widespread among Council Fathers and that it attracted a relatively high negative vote.^[53]

Decrees and declarations on the Church in the world

• Mission Activity. The decree Ad gentes treated evangelisation as a central task of the Church.^[54]

• Ecumenism. The decree Unitatis redintegratio stated that the restoration of unity among Christians was one of the principal concerns of the council. It taught that Catholics should work for Christian unity and acknowledged that elements of sanctification and truth exist outside the visible boundaries of the Catholic Church.^[55]

• Relation of the Church to Non-Christian Religions. The declaration Nostra aetate addressed the Church's relationship with non-Christian religions. It discussed Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and Judaism, and stated that the Catholic Church rejects nothing that is true and holy in these religions.^[56] The declaration rejected the charge of collective Jewish guilt for the death of Christ and condemned antisemitism. Hahnenberg presents the document as part of John XXIII's concern that Catholic teaching should not encourage antisemitism.^[57]

• Religious Freedom. The declaration Dignitatis humanae affirmed a right to religious freedom grounded in the dignity of the human person. O'Malley describes the document as the council's most striking departure from earlier formulations on Church-state relations.^[58] The declaration was associated especially with the work of the American Jesuit theologian John Courtney Murray.^[58] Some Council Fathers rejected the declaration on the ground that it contradicted earlier Catholic teaching.^[59]

• The Means of Social Communication. The decree Inter mirifica addressed the press, cinema, television, and other forms of social communication. O'Malley describes it as generally considered one of the weaker documents of the council.^[60]

Changes after Vatican II

Several changes in Catholic life followed the council. The use of vernacular languages became common in the Mass, and liturgical books were revised.^[35] Communion under both kinds was restored in certain circumstances, and new Eucharistic prayers were introduced.^[61]

The council also affected the Church's approaches to ecumenism, interreligious dialogue, episcopal collegiality, lay participation, religious life, and political and social questions.^[5]

In a 2005 address to the Roman Curia, Benedict XVI argued that the council should be interpreted through a "hermeneutic of reform" involving both continuity and renewal rather than a "hermeneutic of discontinuity and rupture".^[62]

Validity of the council

Some traditionalist Catholics have argued that parts of Vatican II conflict with earlier Catholic teaching. The most prominent traditionalist group critical of the council is the Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX), founded in 1970 by Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre.^[63]

Lefebvre was excommunicated in 1988 after consecrating bishops without papal approval. In 2009, Benedict XVI lifted the excommunications of the surviving bishops consecrated by Lefebvre, while stating that the SSPX had no canonical status in the Church and that its ministers did not exercise legitimate ministry.^[64]

Some groups reject the legitimacy or full papal authority of post-conciliar popes. Sedevacantists hold that the Holy See has been vacant since the death of Pius XII or John XXIII, while sedeprivationists hold that later popes are materially but not formally pope.

Authority of the council's teaching

Since Vatican II did not issue dogmatic definitions or anathemas in the form used by some earlier councils, some Catholics have questioned the authority of its teachings. Paul VI addressed this in a general audience on 12 January 1966, stating that although the council avoided extraordinary dogmatic definitions, its teaching belonged to the ordinary magisterium and was to be received sincerely by the faithful.^[65]

The 1983 Code of Canon Law states that Catholics are to give religious submission of intellect and will to teachings that the pope or the college of bishops declare on faith or morals, even when those teachings are not proposed by a definitive act (canon 752).^[66]

"Spirit of Vatican II"

The phrase "spirit of Vatican II" has been used to describe interpretations of the council that appeal to its general aims rather than only to the literal wording of its documents. O'Malley writes that the phrase has been used for a range of positions, some of which extended beyond what the texts themselves stated.^[67]

Ecumenical and interreligious controversies

Some traditionalist Catholics have criticised Nostra aetate, Unitatis redintegratio, and Dignitatis humanae, saying that that these documents depart from earlier Catholic formulations on non-Christian religions, ecumenism, and religious liberty.^[68] Supporters of the relevant documents have argued that they developed earlier teaching while preserving Catholic doctrine.^[69]

Vatican II participants who later became pope

Four participants in Vatican II later became pope:^[23][70]

• Cardinal Giovanni Battista Montini, who became Pope Paul VI
• Bishop Albino Luciani, who became Pope John Paul I
• Bishop Karol Wojtyła, who became Pope John Paul II
• Father Joseph Ratzinger, who became Pope Benedict XVI

Saints of Vatican II

Several people associated with Vatican II have been canonized or beatified.

Canonized saints:

• Pope John XXIII, canonized in 2014 by Pope Francis
• Pope Paul VI, canonized in 2018 by Pope Francis
• Pope John Paul II, canonized in 2014 by Pope Francis

Beatified:

• Pope John Paul I, beatified in 2022 by Pope Francis
• Álvaro del Portillo, beatified in 2014 by Pope Francis
• Enrique Angelelli, beatified in 2019 by Pope Francis

Causes opened or ongoing:

• Fulton J. Sheen, council father
• Terence Cooke, council father
• Gregorio Pietro Agagianian, council father
• Frank Duff, observer