Wireless data

Wi‑Fi (Wireless LAN)

• Connects devices via access points using IEEE 802.11 standards.
• Latest versions include Wi‑Fi 6/6E (using 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and now 6 GHz bands) offering higher throughput and efficiency

Cellular (3G/4G/5G/5G‑Advanced)

• 3G/4G (LTE) support broad data access.
• 5G launched globally since 2019; offers up to 10 Gbps speeds, extremely low latency, and supports massive IoT
• 5G‑Advanced (5.5G) introduces AI integration, edge compute, better slicing, non-terrestrial networks, aiming for full deployment by end of 2025.

Wireless PAN and others

• Bluetooth, Zigbee, UWB for short-range, low-energy data transfer (e.g., device pairing, indoor location) ^[3][4]
• Satellite and Wide Area IoT networks (e.g., NB-IoT) allow remote connectivity

Niche and emerging

• IEEE 802.22 uses TV bands for rural broadband with AES-GCM encryption
• Free-Space Optical (FSO) Infrared beams achieved 5.7 Tbps over 4.6 km—no RF needed^[5]
• 6G (2027–30) envisions terahertz bands, AI-native networks, quantum comms, holographic beamforming^[6]

Wi‑Fi encryption

There are four main methods of Wi-Fi Encryption:

• WEP: outdated and insecure.
• WPA & WPA2: added TKIP and AES/CCMP, respectively
• WPA3: modern standard since 2018 with SAE, enhanced open (OWE), 192-bit enterprise, and protection of management frames^[7][8]

Trends in wireless security

The trend in wireless security is to move toward WPA3, Wi‑Fi 6E enhancements, private 5G/LTE (CBRS), UEM, AI/ML analytics, edge protection, and stronger identity access management.^[9][10]

OSI layers

Wireless networks conform to the OSI model, each layer bringing unique threats and protections.^[7]

Protocol stacks

Wireless Application Protocol is the early mobile web stack (WSP/WDP/WTP/WTLS) designed for feature phones and constrained networks.^{[citation needed]}