Wisdom

Dictionary definitions

• Merriam-Webster: "ability to discern inner qualities and relationships"; "good sense"^[9]
• Cambridge dictionary: "the ability to use your knowledge and experience to make good decisions and judgments"^[10]
• Oxford English Dictionary:^[11]

• "Capacity of judging rightly in matters relating to life and conduct; soundness of judgement in the choice of means and ends; sometimes, less strictly, sound sense, esp. in practical affairs: opposed to folly";
• "Knowledge (esp. of a high or abstruse kind); enlightenment, learning, erudition; in early use often = philosophy, science. †Also, practical knowledge or understanding, expertness in an art. Now historical."

• The Britannica Dictionary: "knowledge that is gained by having many experiences in life"; " the natural ability to understand things that most other people cannot understand"; "knowledge of what is proper or reasonable"; " good sense or judgment"^[12]

Mesopotamian mythology

The earliest wisdom literature comes from Sumerian and Egyptian texts. In Sumerian tradition, wisdom (me) was considered a divine principle given by the gods, recorded in proverbs and myths.^[13] In Mesopotamian religion and mythology, Enki, also known as Ea, was the god of wisdom and intelligence. Divine wisdom allowed the provident designation of functions^{[clarification needed]} and the ordering of the cosmos, and it^[ambiguous] was achieved by humans by following mes (in Sumerian: order, rite, righteousness) which maintain balance.^[14] In addition to hymns to Enki or Ea dating from the third millennium BCE, there is among the clay tablets of Abu Salabikh from 2600 BCE (the oldest dated texts), a "Hymn to Shamash" which includes the following:^[15]

Wide is the courtyard of Shamash night chamber, (just as wide is the womb of) a wise pregnant woman! Sin, his warrior, wise one, heard of the offerings and came down to his fiesta. He is the father of the nation and the father of intelligence

Egyptian mythology

Egyptian wisdom texts, such as the Maxims of Ptahhotep (c. 2400 BCE), emphasized moral conduct and social harmony.^[16]

Sia was the personification of perception and thoughtfulness in the mythology of Ancient Egypt. Thoth, married to Maat (in ancient Egyptian: order, righteousness, truth), was regarded as the being who introduced wisdom to the nation.^[17][18]

The concept of Logos – manifest word of the divine thought – was also present in the philosophy and hymns of Egypt and Ancient Greece.^[18] It was important in the thinking of Heraclitus, and in the Abrahamic traditions. It seems to have been derived from Mesopotamian culture.^[19]

Judaism

Biblical wisdom literature includes the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job, which depict wisdom as both divine and practical, often contrasting human knowledge with divine omniscience.^[20]

The word "wisdom" (Chokmah (חָכְמָה), from the Hebrew root חכם) is mentioned 222 times in the Hebrew Bible. It was regarded as one of the highest virtues among the Israelites along with kindness (חסד) and justice (צדק). Wisdom is exemplified by Solomon. Much of the Book of Proverbs, which is filled with wise sayings, is attributed to Solomon. The Talmud teaches that a wise person can foresee the future. Nolad is a Hebrew word for "future," but also the Hebrew word for "birth", so one rabbinic interpretation of the teaching is that a wise person is one who can foresee the consequences of his/her choices (i.e. can "see the future" that he/she "gives birth" to).^[21]

Greek mythology

Roman mythology

The ancient Romans also valued wisdom, which was personified as Minerva or Pallas. She also represents skillful knowledge and the virtues, especially chastity. Her symbol was the owl, which is still a popular representation of wisdom, because it can see in darkness. She was said to have been born from Jupiter's forehead.^[31]

Hellenistic religion and Gnosticism

In Hellenistic religion, wisdom was often personified as a divine or mystical force guiding human understanding. In Greek mystery religions, particularly Orphism and the Eleusinian Mysteries, wisdom was associated with spiritual enlightenment and initiation into hidden truths.^[32] Philosophical movements such as Neoplatonism developed a concept of wisdom (sophia, σοφία) as the knowledge of the divine order of existence. Plotinus (204–270 CE) viewed wisdom as an ascent of the soul towards the One, the ultimate source of all reality.^[33] In this tradition, wisdom was both intellectual and mystical, requiring inner purification to grasp transcendent truths.

Christianity

In Christian theology, "wisdom" describes an aspect of God, or the theological concept regarding the wisdom of God.^{[citation needed]} Wisdom is considered one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. Justin Martyr,^[34] Athenagoras of Athens and Theophilus of Antioch identified the Wisdom of the Book of Proverbs with the Word who is Jesus Christ God.^[35]

Gnosticism

Wisdom also played a central role in Gnosticism, an esoteric movement that emerged in the first few centuries CE. Gnostics saw wisdom (Sophia) as a divine figure, often depicted as a fallen being who sought to restore humanity's knowledge of its divine origin. In texts in the Nag Hammadi library, Sophia is described as the mother of all living and the source of gnosis (spiritual knowledge).^[36] According to Valentinian Gnosticism, Sophia's fall led to the creation of the material world, but through wisdom, the soul could transcend illusion and return to the divine realm.^[37]

Gnostic texts such as the Pistis Sophia depict wisdom as a cosmic force struggling to free itself from ignorance and darkness. This contrasts with orthodox Christian views, where wisdom (σοφία) is associated with the Logos and divine order rather than cosmic dualism.^[38] In Hermeticism, another esoteric tradition of the Hellenistic period, wisdom was linked to inner enlightenment and mystical union with the divine mind (nous, νοῦς).^[39] These traditions, though diverse, shared the belief that wisdom was the key to transcending material existence and reuniting with the divine.

Islam

In Islamic philosophy the Arabic term hikmah (حكمة) refers to wisdom as both divine insight and rational philosophy, deeply influenced by Aristotle, Avicenna, and Al-Farabi.^[40] Prophets of Islam are believed by Muslims to possess great wisdom. The Sufi philosopher Ibn Arabi considers al-Hakim ("The Wise") as one of the names of the Creator.^[41] Wisdom and truth, considered divine attributes, were valued in Islamic sciences and philosophy. The first Arab philosopher, Al-Kindi says at the beginning of his book:^[42]

We must not be ashamed to admire the truth or to acquire it, from wherever it comes. Even if it should come from far-flung nations and foreign peoples, there is for the student of truth nothing more important than the truth, nor is the truth demeaned or diminished by the one who states or conveys it; no one is demeaned by the truth, rather all are ennobled by it.

Norse mythology

Odin is known for his wisdom, often as acquired through various hardships and ordeals involving pain and self-sacrifice. In one instance he plucked out an eye and offered it to Mímir, guardian of the well of knowledge and wisdom, in return for a drink from the well.^[43]

In another famous account, Odin hanged himself for nine nights from Yggdrasil, the World Tree that unites all the realms of existence, suffering from hunger and thirst and finally wounding himself with a spear until he gained the knowledge of runes for use in casting powerful magic.^[44] He was also able to acquire the mead of poetry from the giants, a drink of which could grant the power of a scholar or poet, for the benefit of gods and mortals alike.^[43]

In folklore

In many cultures, the name for third molars, which are the last teeth to grow, is etymologically linked with wisdom, as in the English wisdom tooth. This nickname originated from the classical tradition – the Hippocratic writings used the term sóphronistér (in Greek, related to the meaning of moderation or teaching a lesson), and in Latin dens sapientiae (wisdom tooth).^[45]

Ancient Greek philosophy

Wisdom (sophia, σοφία) played a central role in Ancient Greek philosophy and was often distinguished from mere knowledge (episteme, ἐπιστήμη).

Roman philosophy

In Roman philosophy, wisdom (sapientia) was regarded as the virtue of the Stoic sage. Cicero and Seneca viewed wisdom as self-discipline and rational living, essential for achieving inner tranquility (ataraxia).^[50]

Medieval and Renaissance thought

In the Medieval period, wisdom was often linked to divine revelation and theology. Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE) viewed wisdom as knowledge aligned with God's eternal truth, distinguishing it from mere worldly intelligence.^[51] He argued that true wisdom (sapientia) comes from knowing and loving God, contrasting it with human knowledge (scientia), which concerns temporal matters.^[52]

Thomas Aquinas built upon Aristotle's distinction between theoretical and practical wisdom, incorporating it into Christian theology. He argued that wisdom (sapientia) is the highest intellectual virtue, guiding reason toward ultimate truth and divine understanding.^[53] Aquinas distinguished between natural wisdom, which humans acquire through reason, and supernatural wisdom, which comes through divine revelation.^[54]

During the Renaissance, humanist thinkers such as Erasmus and Montaigne emphasized the role of self-reflection and skepticism in wisdom, challenging dogmatic reliance on authority.^[55] Montaigne, in his Essays, proposed that true wisdom lies in acknowledging uncertainty and maintaining intellectual humility.^[56] The Renaissance emphasis on human reason and critical inquiry laid the groundwork for early modern philosophical discussions of wisdom.

Modern and contemporary philosophy

In the Age of Enlightenment, the concept of wisdom shifted from religious and metaphysical frameworks to one rooted in rationality and moral duty. Immanuel Kant argued that wisdom involves the application of practical reason to align one's actions with universal moral principles.^[57] He distinguished between theoretical reason, which seeks knowledge for its own sake, and practical reason, which applies knowledge ethically. Kantian wisdom involves making decisions that conform to the categorical imperative, a moral law derived from reason.

During the 19th century, romanticism and existentialism challenged the rationalist foundations of wisdom. Friedrich Nietzsche criticized traditional views of wisdom as passive contemplation and obedience to moral codes. Instead, he championed "life-affirming wisdom", emphasizing personal growth through struggle and self-overcoming.^[58] Nietzsche rejected the pursuit of static truths, instead advocating for a dynamic and self-created form of wisdom.

Existentialist philosophers further expanded this critique. Jean-Paul Sartre viewed wisdom as a confrontation with the absurd condition of life and the freedom to create meaning in a world devoid of inherent purpose.^[59] Albert Camus echoed these ideas in The Myth of Sisyphus, arguing that wisdom lies in accepting life's absurdity and choosing to live meaningfully despite its challenges.^[60]

In the 20th century, pragmatist philosophers like John Dewey argued for a form of wisdom based on adaptability and practical decision-making. Dewey rejected fixed moral absolutes in favor of wisdom as a constantly evolving process of inquiry and experimentation.^[61] Pragmatic wisdom, according to Dewey, emerges from ongoing reflection on experience and the ability to adapt principles to changing contexts. Following Dewey's lead, Robert L. Holmes argued that wisdom in the modern nuclear era calls for individuals to transcend the dogmatic use of fixed philosophical principles such as just wars and unjust wars by resolving military conflict through the use of "pragmatic pacifism" instead.^[62][63]

Meanwhile, virtue ethicists such as Martha Nussbaum argue that wisdom is tied to emotional intelligence and empathy. In her works on Aristotelian ethics, Nussbaum writes that wise individuals understand the complexities of human emotions and integrate them into moral reasoning.^[64] Similarly, Richard Clyde Taylor argued that wisdom is characterized by compassionate understanding when accompanied by the realization that, "there simply is no such thing as philosophical knowledge, nor any philosophical way of knowing anything."^[65][66][67] This perspective sees wisdom not merely as intellectual discernment but as the capacity to recognize the emotional and contextual dimensions of moral life.

In the realm of epistemology, other 20th century philosophers also drew inspiration from the sweeping critique of "conventional wisdom" outlined by Socrates in his rejoinder to arguments presented by Cebes in his Phaedo.^[68] In this view, philosophical wisdom does not necessarily result from devotion to a particular intellectual school of thought and is more accurately characterized as the attainment of a form of intellectual humility through the use of dialectic. In a similar manner, several contemporary philosophers argue that wisdom serves to clarify the manner in which ancient dead metaphors continue to cloud mankind's attainment of knowledge and our understanding of events in general.^[69] By "unmasking" the persistent use of "disguised" conceptual metaphors in everyday language, these philosophers suggest that systematic philosophical dogmas can be more readily transcended in the pursuit of more useful models of reality.^[70] Included among this group are the scholars Colin Murray Turbayne and Kendall Walton.^{[71][72][73][74]}

Other contemporary philosophers uncovered new insights into wisdom as applied to the study of ontology within a paradigm of a modern "secular philosophy". Following Immanuel kant's lead, Lewis White Beck argued that the analysis of wisdom found within the works of Thomas Acquinas, Blaise Pascal, Soren Kierkegaard, and William James allows one to avoid the criticisms raised by Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche and the Logical Positivists against Plato's mystical concept of the hidden "unknowable beyond." Due to its historical existential importance, such a concept cannot be dismissed merely as a product of mankind's imagination or blindly embraced on purely dogmatic grounds. Citing Immanuel Kant's description of the "land of truth," Beck argued that mankind can transcend this apparent duality by acknowledging a purely limited knowledge of the "unknowable beyond" in accordance with the dictates of philosophical wisdom whenever it is accompanied by an act of pure faith.^[75][76][77]

Postmodern philosophers challenge the notion of wisdom as a universal concept. Michel Foucault argued that ideas of wisdom are shaped by power structures and are inherently subjective, often serving to reinforce dominant ideologies.^[78] Postmodern perspectives emphasize cultural relativism and the diversity of wisdom across historical and social contexts rather than a singular definition.

Today, contemporary discussions of wisdom draw from cognitive science and social philosophy. Philosophers like Philip Kitcher focus on practical wisdom as collaborative decision-making in democratic societies.^[79] This view holds that wisdom is not an individual trait but a collective process involving diverse perspectives. As such, modern philosophy views wisdom as dynamic, context-dependent, and shaped by emotional, social, and cognitive factors.

Zoroastrianism

In the Avesta Gathas, hymns traditionally attributed to Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda means "Lord" (Ahura) and "Wisdom" (Mazda), and is the central deity who embodies goodness, being also called "Good Thought" (Vohu Manah).^[80] In Zoroastrianism, the order of the universe and morals is called asha (in Avestan, truth, righteousness), which is determined by this omniscient Thought and also considered a deity emanating from Ahura (Amesha Spenta). It is related to another ahura deity, Spenta Mainyu (active Mentality).^[81] It says in Yazna 31:^[82]

To him shall the best befall, who, as one that knows, speaks to me Right's truthful word of Welfare and of Immortality; even the Dominion of Mazda which Good Thought shall increase for him. About which he in the beginning thus thought, "let the blessed realms be filled with Light", he it is that by his wisdom created Right.

Buddhism

In Theravada Buddhism, prajñā (प्रज्ञा); wisdom, understanding, intelligence) is "seeing things as they are," or as gaining a "penetrative understanding of all phenomena", which in turn is described as ultimately leading to nirvana and the "complete freedom from suffering".^[83][84] Developing prajñā is accomplished through an understanding of what are known as the Four Noble Truths and by following the Noble Eightfold Path.^[83][84] The eightfold path is summarized as the threefold trainings: prajñā (right view, right intention), Śīla (ethical conduct, and samadhi (right effort, mindfulness, and meditation).^[83][85] prajñā is also known as vipassanā (insight), the realization of impermanence (anicca), suffering (duḥkha), and non-self (anattā).

The Buddhist Nikayas teach that wise people conduct themselves well.^[86] Anguttara Nikaya states that a wise person does actions that are unpleasant to do but give good results, and does not do actions that are pleasant to do but give bad results.^[87] Wisdom is the antidote to the poison of ignorance (avidhya).

In Mahayana Buddhism, wisdom is often personified by the Bodhisattva Manjushri, who wields a sword to cut through ignorance. The term Prajñā was translated into Chinese as 智慧 (pinyin zhìhuì, characters 智 "knowledge" and 慧 "bright, intelligent"). In Chinese Buddhism, the idea of insight is closely linked to its Indian equivalent, as it appears for instance in certain conceptual continuities that exist between Asanga, Vasubandhu and Xuanzang.^{[further explanation needed][88]}Zen traditions emphasize satori (悟り), a sudden flash of insight.

Hinduism

In Hinduism, jñāna (ज्ञान, knowledge, insight) is closely associated with insight into the ultimate nature of reality (Brahman, ब्रह्मन्) and the self (Ātman, आत्मन्).^[6]

Baháʼí Faith

In Baháʼí Faith scripture, "The essence of wisdom is the fear of God, the dread of His scourge and punishment, and the apprehension of His justice and decree."^[89] Wisdom is seen as a light that casts away darkness, and "its dictates must be observed under all circumstances".^[90] One may obtain knowledge and wisdom through God, his Word, and his Divine Manifestation; the source of all learning is the knowledge of God.^[91]

Taoism

Taoist views of 'effortless acting' (wu wei, 無為) emphasizes effortless action, aligning with the natural flow of the universe (Tao). While early Confucianism values social harmony and structured virtue, Taoist wisdom often embraces paradox and non-conformity. The Zhuangzi text, attributed to Zhuang Zhou (c. 4th century BCE), presents wisdom as a state of effortless flow (wu wei), where one aligns with the spontaneous patterns of nature rather than imposing human will.^[92] This contrasts with Confucian ideals of ritual and duty, as Taoist wisdom values freedom from rigid thinking and acceptance of change.^[93]

Taoist wisdom also includes cosmological insight, recognizing that all things emerge from the Tao (道), the fundamental force of existence.^[94] In Tao Te Ching (道德經), attributed to Laozi (6th century BCE), wisdom is described as yielding like water, able to overcome obstacles through gentleness rather than force.^[95] This perspective aligns with Taoist ethics, which discourage aggression and rigid control, instead promoting a harmonious existence in sync with nature's rhythms.^[96] He also describes wisdom as understanding the balance of opposites (Yin and Yang) and acting in harmony with nature rather than imposing force.^[95]

Unlike Western views, Taoist wisdom often involves paradox and non-action, valuing spontaneity over rigid rules. Taoist sages are often depicted as detached from worldly concerns, seeking a deeper, wordless understanding of existence that transcends conventional logic.^[97]

Confucianism

In Confucian thought, wisdom (zhi, 智) is closely linked to ethical living and social harmony. Confucius (551–479 BCE) taught that wisdom is not merely intelligence but the ability to act virtuously in relationships and governance.^[98] It involves self-cultivation, learning from the past, and practicing benevolence (ren, 仁), which Confucius regarded as a foundational virtue.^[8]

Wisdom in Confucianism is practical and moral, requiring individuals to cultivate righteousness (yi, 義) and ritual propriety (li, 禮) in order to contribute to a stable society.^[99] The ideal wise person, or "superior person" (junzi, 君子), embodies wisdom by continuously refining their character and aligning their actions with ethical principles.^[100]

Later Confucian thinkers expanded on this concept. Mencius (372–289 BCE) emphasized compassion and moral intuition as sources of wisdom, arguing that humans are naturally inclined toward goodness but must develop wisdom through education and reflection.^[101] Xunzi (c. 310–235 BCE), by contrast, saw wisdom as the product of strict discipline and adherence to ritual, believing that human nature is inherently flawed and must be shaped through deliberate effort.^[102]

The Confucian approach to wisdom remains influential in East Asian ethics, education, and leadership philosophy, continuing to shape modern discussions on morality and governance.^[103]

Definitions

Opinions on the psychological definition of wisdom vary.^[105]

Baltes, Glück and Kunzmann (2001) defined wisdom as "the ability to deal with the contradictions of a specific situation and to assess the consequences of an action for themselves and for others. It is achieved when in a concrete situation, a balance between intrapersonal, interpersonal and institutional interests can be prepared".^[106]

Jeste et al. (2010) found that thatn an expert consensus panel mostly agreed that wisdom is "uniquely human; a form of advanced cognitive and emotional development that is experience driven; and a personal quality, albeit a rare one, which can be learned, increases with age, can be measured, and is not likely to be enhanced by taking medication."^[107]

According to Brown and Greene (2006) "wisdom is an expertise in dealing with difficult questions of life and adaptation to the complex requirements."^[108]

Approaches

Sternberg (1990) distinguishes three distinctive approaches to understanding wisdom: philosophical, folk conceptions, and psychodevelopmental views.^[109]

According to Baltes and Staudinger (2000), theoretical and empirical studies on wisdom have, broadly seen, taken three approaches to understanding wisdom: as a personal characteristic or a "constellation of personality dispositions"; as a post-formal way of thinking: or as an expert way of dealing with "the meaning of and conduct of life."^[110][b]

According to Grossman (2017), wisdom can be viewed as a stable personality trait, or as a context-bound process.^[111]

Aspects

Difference from intelligence and knowledge

Robert J. Sternberg, studying the relation between wisdom, intelligence, and creativity, argues that wisdom is both theoretically and empirically distinct from general (fluid or crystallized) intelligence.^[127][128] Researchers have shown empirically that wise reasoning is distinct from IQ.^[129]

According to Brown and Greene (2006) "there is an overlap of the implicit theory of wisdom with intelligence, perceptiveness, spirituality, and shrewdness."^[108]

Jeste et al. (2010) defined wisdom using an expert consensus panel to determine how wisdom was viewed as being different from intelligence and spirituality, and found that the panel viewed wisdom as being different from intelligence on 49 of the 53 items used in their Likert scale statements.^[107]

Relation with age

Many, but not all, studies find that adults' self-ratings of perspective and wisdom do not depend on age.^{[130][131][132]} This conflicts with the popular notion that wisdom increases with age.^[131] The answer to whether age and wisdom correlate depends on how one defines wisdom and one's experimental technique. The answer to this question also depends on the domain studied, and the role of experience in that domain, with some contexts favoring older adults, others favoring younger adults, and some not differentiating age groups.^[111] Rigorous longitudinal work is needed to answer this question, while most studies rely on cross-sectional observations.^[133]

Measuring wisdom

Empirical (evidence-based) research on wisdom is relatively new, but growing rapidly.^[134]

A researcher will measure wisdom differently depending on their theoretical position about the nature of wisdom. For example, some view wisdom as a stable personality trait, others as a context-bound process.^[111]

Wisdom as a personality trait can be measured with zelf-questionnaires, which are prone to self-report bias.^[118][135]

Contextual approaches measure multiple dimensions^[136] including features of cognition, motivation, and emotion, in the context of a specific situation.^[137][111] Such state-level measures provide less-biased responses as well as greater power in explaining meaningful psychological processes.^[118]

The Jeste-Thomas Wisdom Index^[138] is based on a survey (SD-WISE-28) created by researchers at the University of California San Diego to determine how wise a person is. In 2021 Dilip V. Jeste and his colleagues created a survey (SD-WISE-7) testing seven components: acceptance of diverse perspectives, decisiveness, emotional regulation, prosocial behaviors, self-reflection, social advising, and (to a lesser degree) spirituality.^[139]

Theories and models

Zhang and Wang (2023) list the following approaches to wisdom:

• The Berlin Wisdom Paradigm is an expertise model of life wisdom.^[140][141]
• The Balance Theory of Wisdom^[141]
• The Self-transcendence Wisdom Theory^[141]
• The Three-dimensional Wisdom Theory^[141]
• The H.E.R.O.(E.) Model of Wisdom^[141]
• The Process View of Wisdom^[141]
• The Integrating Virtue and Wit Theory of Wisdom^[141]

Jungian psychology

The wise old person is an unconscious attitude concerning nature and the collective unconscious.^[142]

Star Wars is a monomyth that uses archetypal psychology, specifically Joseph Campbell's The Hero of a Thousand Faces.^[143] The character Master Yoda from the films evokes the trope of the wise old man,^[144] and he is frequently quoted, analogously to Chinese thinkers or Eastern sages in general.^[145][146]

Gestalt therapy

A wise-person fantasy is an awareness intervention, where one poses a question, thinks on it for a few minutes, and then role-plays a fantasized wise person to answer that same question.^[147]

Maxwell's educational philosophy

Nicholas Maxwell, a philosopher in the United Kingdom, believes academia ought to alter its focus from the acquisition of knowledge to seeking and promoting wisdom.^[149] This he defines as the capacity to realize what is of value in life, for oneself and others.^[150] He teaches that new knowledge and technological know-how increase our power to act. Without wisdom though, Maxwell claims this new knowledge may cause human harm as well as human good. He argues that the pursuit of knowledge is indeed valuable and good, but that it should be considered a part of the broader task of improving wisdom.^[151]