Witchcraft in ancient Greece and Rome
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The earliest evidence of attitudes toward witchcraft in Europe can be traced back to ancient Greece.[1] The concepts of witchcraft in both ancient Greece and Rome invite exploration, as they are intertwined with cultural identities, political dynamics, and gendered stereotypes. Those labeled as "witches" engaged with magic in ways that reflected broader societal norms and anxieties.
Both ancient Greeks and Romans turned to magic to enhance their daily lives, especially when conventional solutions failed. In a society marked by complex and competitive erotic relationships, there is substantial evidence that both cultures envisioned and practiced magic to address their dilemmas. These ranged from simple physical desires to the intricate social dynamics underlying personal interactions, highlighting magic's pervasive role in navigating relationships.[2]
From the 8th to the 5th century BCE, practitioners known as goêtes engaged in various forms of magic, including divination, spellcasting, and invoking supernatural entities.[3] During this time, witches were often viewed as women wielding powerful potions, requiring extensive knowledge of herbs and rituals.[4] Notably, there are no recorded condemnations of magic in Greek texts before 450 BCE.[5]
The condemnation of witches began in the 5th century BCE, influenced by several socio-political changes. The war with Persia prompted Greeks to define their identity against foreign influences, while city-states redefined citizenship and imperialism.[6] The Ionian Revolt of 494 BCE, supported by Athens, intensified the struggle between Persian expansion and Athenian independence. Following their victory at Salamis in 479 BCE, a growing enthusiasm for democracy emerged, emphasizing rationality, social equality, and justice. This shift significantly shaped Athenian identity, leading to new legislation that scrutinized women's sexual chastity and the legitimacy of children. Edith Hall argues that a "discourse of barbarism" developed during this period, reflected in tragic literature and legitimizing imperial ideologies, with Persians symbolizing tyranny and chaos. Consequently, the discourse surrounding magic became intertwined with this narrative of barbarism, as noted by Kimberly B. Stratton.[7]
In Rome, Greek literature's influence is evident in enduring figures like Circe and Medea, as well as in the creation of supernatural entities such as Lamia. While these narratives have roots in various cultures across Africa, Asia, and Europe, Rome's contributions helped integrate them into Western cultural traditions.[8]
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