Xu Chang's rebellion

Xu Chang's rebellion is mentioned in several classical sources, namely the Dongguan Hanji, Records of the Three Kingdoms, Annals of the Later Han, Book of the Later Han, and the Zizhi Tongjian.^[a] These sources do not give detailed descriptions of the rebellion, and differ on several aspects, including the names and titles of the uprising's leaders. Some differences can be reconciled, while the most likely name of the head of the insurgency is "Xu Chang", as the name is associated with a prophecy about dynastic change in the Zuo Zhuan.^[3] By the late 2nd century, many believed that the prophecy claimed that someone named or connected with "xuchang" would overthrow the Han dynasty.^[4] Sinologist Rafe de Crespigny argued that the rebel leader probably based his uprising on his name, perhaps even adopting the name "Xu Chang" to fit the prophecy.^[3]

The Han dynasty of China faced growing difficulties in the 160s and 170s, as its central government became ever more factionalised and corrupt, while its regional authority suffered from defeats along the northern frontier as well as tensions with the local gentry across the empire. Despite these difficulties, the Han empire remained relatively stable,^[5] although religious movements spread as many people sought salvation from plagues and famines. The lower Yangtze region was one of the centers for unorthodox cults opposed to the state ideology of Confucianism. Many heterodox cults promised to provide healing as well as secret knowledge.^[6][7] One of the local sects was led by a man named Xu Chang^[3][7] who claimed to have supernatural powers.^[8] His followers probably included both Han Chinese as well as Yue tribespeople.^[8]

Xu Chang launched his uprising at Juzhang (Ningbo) in 172,^[8] declaring himself "Emperor of the Brightness of Yang" (陽明皇帝), while appointing his father Xu Sheng "King of Yue", formally reviving the ancient state of the same name^[5][9] that had been destroyed in the 4th or 3rd century BC.^[10][b] According to some of the classical sources, Xu Chang had a brother or son named Xu Zhao and/or Xu Shao (許韶) who also received titles. However, it is possible that Xu Zhao / Xu Shao were actually alternate names for Xu Cheng.^[9] Besides the Xu family, a local tribal chieftain named Ju Kang served as rebel leader.^[12] The rebellion is believed to have been religiously motivated, although sinologist Werner Eichhorn has speculated that the uprising might also have been a nationalist Yue revolt against the Han Chinese. In contrast, de Crespigny considers it unlikely that nationalist motives played a role.^[8]

The local armed forces of Kuaiji Administrator Yin Duan failed to defeat the insurgents,^[13] allowing them to overrun large parts of the commandery.^[9] A member of the local gentry, Sun Jian, was among those ordered to press-gang troops for the government cause. Appointed acting major, he managed to raise a militia of about 1,000 men. He and his force served with distinction while fighting the rebels.^[14][15]

Despite the efforts of Kuaiji Commandery's loyalists, the insurgents were already so successful that they even invaded other commanderies.^[14] As result, the government appointed the official Zang Min as Inspector of Yang Province to deal with the issue.^[16] Troops from the entire province were mobilized,^[9] with Chen Yin (陈夤 or 陈寅), Administrator of Danyang, becoming Zang's most important co-commander.^[17] In 173, the provincial authorities reported Administrator Yin Duan for his failure to defeat the rebels, but his registrar Zhu Jun successfully bribed officials in the capital of Luoyang so that Yin only received a convict sentence instead of being executed.^[18]

The troops of Zang Min and Chen Yin finally suppressed the uprising in late 174,^[5][17] killing Xu Chang,^[9] Xu Sheng,^[19] and Ju Kang.^[12]