Di Xin

"Di Xin" (帝辛) is the official title given by the Shang dynasty imperial house, formatted in a similar way to Emperor Shun and Emperor Yao with the thearch title di 帝 placed before his name. This stands in contrast to later emperors, who would have it placed after.^[5]

Di Xin was born with the family name Zi, lineage name Yin, and the given name Shou. He was called Shou, King of Shang 商受王 by the kingdom of Zhou when he was alive.

After Di Xin had allegedly killed himself at Deer Terrace Pavilion, he was given a derogatory posthumous name, King Zhòu of Shang (商紂王) by the succeeding Zhou dynasty, with Zhòu (紂) meaning "horse crupper",^[6] implying "injustice and harm".^[7][8] It is also the part of a saddle or harness that is most likely to be soiled by the horse, and an area most likely to be whipped. However, Sima Qian posthumously claims that everyone in the empire had dubbed Di Xin this name due to a tyrannical reign.^[9]

This title Zhòu 紂 and the enemy Zhōu 周 Dynasty are only pronounced similarly today in Modern Standard Mandarin Chinese. Proceeding from the Baxter–Sagart reconstruction of Old Chinese, which would have been spoken at the time, to Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese, to the modern-day pronunciation in Pinyin would be as follows:

• 紂: /*[d]ruʔ/ → drjuwX → zhòu
• 周: /*tiw/ → tsyuw → zhōu

Di Xin is occasionally called Zhòu Xin (紂辛; Zhòu Xīn), merging his Shang and Zhou names.

Centuries after his death, the name "King Zhou of Shang" had become shorthand for an archetype of wicked rule.^[10]

Di Xin was the younger of three sons to Di Yi, his brothers named Zi Qi (子啓) and Zi Yan (子衍).^[11] As Qi’s mother was of low birth, whereas Di Xin’s was the principal consort, he was made the heir and ascended the throne after Di Yi passed away. Di Xin had two uncles, Ji Zi and Bi Gan. He bore a single son named Wu Geng.^[9]

Outside of family, little is known of Di Xin’s early life outside of posthumous accounts. In Chapter 15 of Xunzi, Di Xin is recorded as having been tall, mighty, and intelligent, even from a young age, able to defeat a hundred men on his own. Sima Qian notes that Di Xin was cunning and able to talk his way out of trouble, and would boast of his abilities being above all others, even his own ministers.^[12] He was also said to be able to fight beasts with his bare hands.^[13] Di Xin's strength is recorded in 甲3939, where he is recorded as having hunted a white Sumatran rhinoceros or Short-horned water buffalo during the 10th year of his reign.^[14]

After succeeding the throne, Di Xin changed the Shang capital to Mo 沬, then change the name to Chaoge 朝歌, in modern-day Qi County, Hebi in Henan.^[15] Di Xin is known for his wars with the Renfang,^ Linfang 林方, and Hufang 虎方. The Hufang were particularly regarded as being "rebellious" 反 in bronze inscriptions.^[16] These wars are recorded as having been particularly costly to the Shang dynasty in posthumous accounts and were seen as the main reason for its downfall.^[17]

To the horror of the Zhou people, Di Xin was known to employ fugitives in his governmental offices based on merit. This method was found to suppress the clans who held too much power in court.^[18][19] Additionally, he was known to appoint women to positions as well, a trend that would evaporate after his reign. Women were responsible for managing rituals, advising military affairs, managing court and guests, and they were highly respected by the Shang state, which was observed even during the Zhou-Qin classical period.^[20][21][22] The appointment of women to power during the Shang dynasty indicates a culture with high levels of gender equality, while the Zhou state, which was developing Confucian rituals at the time, was more patriarchal.^[23][24][25]

Participation in feng

In contemporary records, as is the role of the Shang king, Di Xin is recorded as having upheld Shang dynasty religion in several bronze and oracle bone inscriptions, where he participates in feng 豊, the Shang dynasty concept of ritual communion with ancestors.^[26] This implies a trend of reduction in human sacrifice compared to previous rulers; likewise, after Di Xin's reign ended, ritual sacrifice increased in the Zhou dynasty.^[27][28][29]

In the fourth year of his reign, he performed an yi sacrifice on an Yisi day dedicated to his father Di Yi, signalling the start of another ritual cycle.^[30] This was actualised with a zhu sacrifice being made later, to which an individual named Bi Qi 邲其 was rewarded with cowry money.^[31] This activity would continue at least into his 22nd year, having performed a rong ritual for his father, signalling the end of a cycle. He rewarded the minister assisting him with cowry money 貝, which was spent on a bronze vessel.^[32]

During his 15th year on a Disi day of Rong sacrifice, Di Xin is recorded as having inspected Kuai during his war with the Renfang. He rewarded an individual named Xiaochen Yu 小臣艅 with cowry money, who would then make imaged after a Sumatran rhinoceros.^[33]

In c. 1046 BC,^[38] the army of Ji Fa of Zhou, invaded with 45,000 troops led by Jiang Ziya, compared to the Shang's 170,000. Despite this, due to having been occupied with fighting the Renfang, they had caught the Shang unaware whilst troop morale was low. This led to a surprise defeat.^[39] The battle is recorded on the Li gui (vessel), the only contemporary epigraphic evidence of its occurrence.^[40]

As many accounts of Di Xin's reign were written from the perspective of the conquering Zhou dynasty, and/or reproduced from lost documents, with increasing allegations of brutality over time, their authenticity is considered debatable.^[46][47] Even during the Warring States period in the Analects, Zi Gong, using the Zhou exonym yet questioning Di Xin's actions, states thusly:

子貢曰：「紂之不善，不如是之甚也。是以君子惡居下流，天下之惡皆歸焉。」

Zi Gong said, "Zhou's wickedness was not so great as that name implies. Therefore, the superior man hates to dwell in a low-lying situation, where all the evil of the world will flow in upon him."^[48]

Gu Xiagang and other Doubting Antiquity School historians further noted the further into later periods sources were, the more detailed and numerous the accusations against Di Xin became. Most notably, the concept of the Mandate of Heaven 天命 as mentioned in these posthumous texts is a subject of considerable debate. Some scholars, like Chao Fulin, argue that the Shang dynasty did not possess the later concept of the 'Mandate of Heaven', which dictates the rise and fall of dynasties. In the 'Book of Shang,' for example, the term 'Mandate of Heaven' actually refers to 'the command of the ancestors' (the spiritual power of the ancestors in heaven to bless or abandon one's life).^[49][50][51]

The apocryphal^ "Great Declaration" in the Book of Documents raises six charges against Di Xin: Not paying reverence to heaven, committing calamities against those below him, abandoning himself to drink and lust, extending punishments to relatives, nepotism via hereditary receipt, killing pregnant women, and building excessive royal quarters (e.g. Palaces, gardens, pavilions). Similar ideas would be repeated in Records of the Grand Historian, Lushi Chunqiu, and other works.^[52] According to Sima Qian, he even hosted festive orgies, where many people engaged in immoral things at the same time with his concubines and created songs with crude, erotic lyrics and poor rhythm. In legends, he is depicted as having come under the influence of his wicked wife Daji, and committing all manner of evil and cruel deeds with her.^[9] However, contemporary records such as bronze vessels and oracle bone inscriptions contradict this characterisation, with him being seemingly consistent in his observance of the religion of the Shang dynasty and ancestral rites.^[32]

One of the most famous forms of entertainment Di Xin enjoyed was the "Lake of Wine and Forest of Meat" (酒池肉林) built at the Deer Terrace Pavilion. A large pool, big enough for several canoes, was constructed with inner linings of polished oval-shaped stones from the seashore. This allowed for the entire pool to be filled with wine. A small island was constructed in the middle of the pool, where trees were planted, which had branches made of roasted meat skewers hanging over the pool. This allowed Di Xin and his friends and concubines to drift on canoes in the pool. When they thirsted, they reached down into the pool with their hands and drank the wine. When they hungered, they reached up with their hands to eat the roasted meat.^[9] The narrative of the "Lake of Wine and Forest of Meat" was questioned as early as the Han dynasty. Scholar Wang Chong, in his work Lunheng, suggested the accounts of "wine pools and meat forests" were unreliable.^[53] During the Southern Song dynasty, scholar Luo Mi wrote in the Lushi that he also considered the allegations against Di Xin to be largely unreliable and exaggerated after reviewing various documents.^[54] A large, stone, artificial pool thought to be the pool at the Deer Terrace Pavilion was unearthed in Yanshi, Henan in 1999. As water wells were found nearby, the researchers concluded that it was not designed to provide groundwater to individuals, but whether it was used for recreation, aesthetic, or ritual use is unclear.^[55]

In order to please Daji, he created the "Punishment of burning flesh with a hot iron (炮格之刑)".^[56] One large hollow bronze cylinder was stuffed with burning charcoal and allowed to burn until red-hot; then prisoners were made to hug the cylinder, which resulted in a painful and unsightly death. Di Xin and Daji were said to become highly aroused after watching such torture. Victims ranged from ordinary people and prisoners to high government officials, such as Mei Bo.^[57]

In the most common narrative, Di Xin killed his uncle Bi Gan by ripping his heart out. The Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project and other studies have pointed out inconsistencies. Bi Gan's death due to his confrontation with his nephew is recorded in the Spring and Autumn period, while the account of his heart being removed by Di Xin appeared much later in the fables of the Warring States period, indicating that extra details were likely added to these accounts reinforce Di Xin's tyrannical image.^[58][59]

In order to fund Di Xin's heavy daily expenses, heavy taxes were implemented. The people suffered greatly, and lost all hope for the Shang dynasty. His brother Wei Zi tried to persuade him to change, but was rebuked. His uncle Bi Gan similarly pleaded with him, but Di Xin had his heart ripped out so he could see what the heart of a sage looked like. When his other uncle Ji Zi heard this, he went to plead with the kingly nephew and, feigning madness, was imprisoned.

Di Xin is mentioned in the Confucian Analects (19 "子張");^[48] and also in the Three Character Classic.^[60] Di Xin is also one of the main subjects of Fengshen Yanyi (Investiture of the Gods) and its various derivatives in popular media. Thus, he has served as a negative exemplar of Confucian principles, presented as the archetypal wicked ruler who justifies regime change according to the Mandate of Heaven, as well as becoming an icon in popular culture.

In Fengshen Yanyi, Di Xin visits the Goddess Nüwa's temple and offended the Goddess with his lustful comments towards her beauty. In response, Nüwa decides that the Shang dynasty should end and sends her three subordinates to become three beautiful women, including Daji, to bewitch Di Xin. Under the influence of these women, Di Xin becomes a ruthless king, losing the support of the people and triggering his downfall. In the same text, Jiang Ziya recognized that King Di Xin was a well-versed and well-trained individual who became an incapable ruler only because he had fallen victim to seduction. After his death, Jiang Ziya deified King Di Xin as the Tianxi Xing (天喜星 "Star of Heavenly Happiness"). As the Tianxi Xing, he had the responsibility of managing the marriage affairs of humans. In the novel, King Di Xin has a wife named Queen Jiang, while Daji served as an imperial concubine. King Di Xin had two sons, Yin Hong and Yin Jiao, with Queen Jiang. The character of Queen Jiang in the novel was based on the real historical figure and consort of King Di Xin, Jiuhou Nü. Jiuhou Nü was the daughter of the leader of the Guifang, Jiuhou, and was wedded to King Di Xin through a political alliance.^[61][62]