Abjad

An abjad (/ˈæbdʒæd/ ^ⓘ^[1]; or abgad lit. 'alphabet')^[2]^[3] is a writing system in which only consonants are represented by letter signs, leaving the vowels to be inferred by the reader (unless represented otherwise, such as by diacritics). This contrasts with alphabets that provide graphemes for both consonants and vowels. The term was introduced in 1990 by Peter T. Daniels.^[4] Other terms for the same concept include partial phonemic script, segmentally linear defective phonographic script, consonantary, consonant writing, and consonantal alphabet.^[5]

Impure abjads, such as the Arabic and Hebrew scripts, represent vowels with either optional diacritics or a limited number of distinct vowel graphemes, or both.

Etymology

The name abjad is based on the Arabic alphabet's first four letters in their original alphabetical order – corresponding to ʾa, b, j, and d – which reflects the alphabetical order ʾaleph, bet, gimel, dalet in other consonantal Semitic scripts such as Phoenician, Hebrew, and other Semitic proto-alphabets classified within the family of scripts used to write West Semitic languages.^[6]

Terminology

According to the formulations of Peter T. Daniels,^[7] abjads differ from alphabets in that only consonants, not vowels, are represented among the basic graphemes. Abjads differ from abugidas, another category defined by Daniels, in that in abjads, the vowel sound is implied by phonology, and where vowel marks exist for the system, such as niqqud for Hebrew and ḥarakāt for Arabic, their use is optional and not the dominant (or literate) form. Abugidas mark all vowels (other than the "inherent" vowel) with a diacritic, a minor attachment to the letter, a standalone grapheme, or (in Canadian Aboriginal syllabics) by rotation of the letter. Some abugidas use a special symbol to suppress the inherent vowel so that the consonant alone can be properly represented. In a syllabary, a grapheme denotes a complete syllable, that is, either a lone vowel sound or a combination of a vowel sound with one or more consonant sounds.

The contrast of abjad versus alphabet has been rejected by other scholars because abjad is also used as a term for the Arabic numeral system. Also, it may be taken as suggesting that consonantal alphabets, in contrast to e.g. the Greek alphabet, were not yet true alphabets.^[8] Florian Coulmas, a critic of Daniels and of the abjad terminology, argues that this terminology can confuse alphabets with "transcription systems", and that there is no reason to relegate the Hebrew, Aramaic or Phoenician alphabets to second-class status as an "incomplete alphabet".^[9] However, Daniels's terminology has found acceptance in the linguistic community.^[10]^[11]^[12]

Origins and history

A specimen of Proto-Sinaitic script containing a phrase which may mean 'to Baalat'. The line running from the upper left to lower right reads *mt l b^clt*.

The Proto-Sinaitic script represents the earliest-known trace of alphabetic writing. This script is generally considered to have been developed around the Sinai Peninsula during the Middle Bronze Age by speakers of an ancient West Semitic language who repurposed pictographic elements of local Egyptian hieroglyphs in order to construct a new script that represented the consonants of their own language using acrophony.^[13] The Proto-Sinaitic script is thought to represent, or at least indicate the existence of, an early ancestor of the many later Semitic consonantal scripts which continued to develop over time into more abstract, less visually representational forms, including the Phoenician abjad.

The Phoenician abjad was a radical simplification of phonetic writing. Unlike other scripts, such as Mesopotamian cuneiform (logographic and syllabic) and Egyptian hieroglyphs (logographic and consonantal), the Phoenician abjad consisted of only a few dozen symbols. Presumably, the relative simplicity of the Phoenician abjad made this script easy to learn, allowed it to gain widespread usage, and influenced how readily it was adopted or adapted into the development of other scripts by non-Phoenicians who encountered seafaring Phoenician merchants and their script which they brought with them as they traded throughout the ancient Mediterranean world during the first millennium BCE.

During these exchanges, the Phoenician script gave rise to a number of new writing systems, including the widely used Aramaic abjad and the Greek alphabet. The Greek alphabet was later developed into several alphabets, including Etruscan, Coptic, Cyrillic, and Latin (via Etruscan), while Aramaic became the ancestor of many abjads and abugidas of Asia, particularly in and around India, Southeast Asia, and Oceania.

Other sister scripts to Phoenician, that branched from Proto-Sinaitic script are the South Semitic scripts with its two main branches; the Ancient North Arabian scripts that were used in north and central Arabia, until it was displaced by the Arabic alphabet^[14] and Ancient South Arabian, which evolved later into the Geʽez script, still being used in Eritrea and Ethiopia.

Impure abjads

Impure abjads have characters for some vowels, optional vowel diacritics, or both. The term pure abjad refers to scripts entirely lacking in vowel indicators.^[15] However, most abjads, such as Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Pahlavi, are "impure" abjads – that is, they also contain symbols for some of the vowel phonemes, although the said non-diacritic vowel letters are also used to write certain consonants, particularly approximants that sound similar to long vowels. A "pure" abjad is exemplified (perhaps) by very early forms of ancient Phoenician, though at some point (at least by the 9th century BC) it and most of the contemporary Semitic abjads had begun to overload a few of the consonant symbols with a secondary function as vowel markers, called matres lectionis.^[16] This practice was at first rare and limited in scope but became increasingly common and more developed in later times.

Addition of vowels

In the 9th century BC the Greeks adapted the Phoenician script for use in their own language. The phonetic structure of the Greek language created too many ambiguities when vowels went unrepresented, so the script was modified. They did not need letters for the guttural sounds represented by aleph, he, heth or ayin, so these symbols were assigned vocalic values. The letters waw and yod were also adapted into vowel signs; along with he, these were already used as matres lectionis in Phoenician. The major innovation of Greek was to dedicate these symbols exclusively and unambiguously to vowel sounds that could be combined arbitrarily with consonants (as opposed to syllabaries such as Linear B which usually have vowel symbols but cannot combine them with consonants to form arbitrary syllables).

Abugidas developed along a slightly different route. The basic consonantal symbol was considered to have an inherent "a" vowel sound. Hooks or short lines attached to various parts of the basic letter modify the vowel. In this way, the South Arabian abjad evolved into the Geʽez script of Ethiopia between the 5th century BC and the 5th century AD. Similarly, the Brāhmī abugida of the Indian subcontinent developed around the 3rd century BC (from the Aramaic abjad, it has been hypothesized).

Abjads and the structure of Semitic languages

The abjad form of writing is well-adapted to the morphological structure of the Semitic languages it was developed to write. This is because words in Semitic languages are formed from a root consisting of (usually) three consonants, the vowels being used to indicate inflectional or derived forms.^[17] For instance, according to Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic, from the Arabic root ك‌ت‌ب K-T-B (to write) can be derived the forms كَتَبَ kataba (he wrote), كَتَبْتَ katabta (you (masculine singular) wrote), يَكْتُبُ⁩ yaktubu (he writes), and مَكْتَبَة⁩ maktabah (library). In most cases, the absence of full glyphs for vowels makes the common root clearer, allowing readers to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from familiar roots (especially in conjunction with context clues) and improving word recognition^{[citation needed]}^{[dubious – discuss]} while reading for practiced readers.

Adaptation for use as true alphabets

The Arabic abjad has been adapted to perform as true alphabets when used to write several languages, including Kurdish, Swahili, Malay, and Uyghur and historically Bosnian, Mozarabic, Aragonese, Portuguese, Spanish and Afrikaans, with some letters or letter combinations being repurposed to represent vowels. The Hebrew abjad has also been adapted to write Jewish languages like Ladino and Yiddish.^[18]

Comparative chart of abjads, extinct and extant

More information Name of abjad, In use ...

Name of abjad	In use	Cursive	Direction	# of letters	Matres lectionis	Area of origin	Used by	Languages	Time period (age)	Earlier scripts that influenced this abjad	Later scripts influenced by this abjad
Arabic	yes	yes	right-left	28	3	Middle East	Over 400 million people	Arabic, Kashmiri, Persian, Pashto, Uyghur, Kurdish, Urdu, many others^[19]	512 CE^[20]^[19]	Nabataean	Thaana Hanifi Rohingya
Syriac	yes	yes	right-left	22 consonants	3	Middle East	Syriac Christianity, Assyrians	Aramaic: Syriac, Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo, Mlahso	c. 100 BCE^[19]	Aramaic	Nabataean, Palmyrene, Mandaic, Parthian, Pahlavi, Sogdian, Avestan and Manichaean^[19]
Hebrew	yes	yes	right-left	22 consonants + 5 final letters	4	Middle East	Israelis, Jewish diaspora communities, Second Temple Judea	Hebrew, Judeo-Arabic, Judeo-Aramaic, Judeo-Persian, Judeo-Italian, Yiddish, Ladino, many others	2nd century BCE	Paleo-Hebrew, Early Aramaic
Aramaic (Imperial)	no	no	right-left	22	3	Middle East	Achaemenid Persian Empire, Sasanian (Neo-Persian) Empire, Neo-Assyrian Empire and their regional satrapies	Imperial Aramaic, Hebrew (after the Babylonian Captivity in the 6th century BCE)	c. 500 BCE^[19]	Phoenician	Late Hebrew, Nabataean, Syriac
Aramaic (Early)	no	no	right-left	22	none	Middle East	Various Semitic Peoples		c. 1000 – c. 900 BCE ^{[citation needed]}	Phoenician	Hebrew, Imperial Aramaic.^[19]
Nabataean	no	yes (semi-cursive form developed into early Arabic script)^[21]	right-left	22	none	Middle East, Petra, (now Jordan)	Nabataean Kingdom^[22]	Nabataean	200 BCE^[22]	Aramaic	Arabic
Phoenician	no	no	right-left, boustrophedon	22	none	Middle East, Levant (now Lebanon and Syria)	Canaanites	Phoenician, Punic, Hebrew	c. 1500 – c. 1000 BCE^[19]	Proto-Canaanite Alphabet^[19]	Punic (variant), Greek, Etruscan, Latin, Arabic, Hebrew
Punic	no	no	right-left	22	none	Carthage (nowTunisia), North Africa, Mediterranean^[19]	Punic Culture	Punic, Neo-Punic (after the siege of Carthage in 146 BCE)	8th century BCE - 6th century CE	Phoenician^[23]
Ancient North Arabian	no	no	right-left	29	yes	Arabian Peninsula	Northern Arabians (Pre-Islamic Arabia)	Old Arabic,Ancient North Arabian languages	8th century BCE - 4th century CE	Proto-Sinaitic
Ancient South Arabian	no	yes (Zabūr - cursive form of the South Arabian script)	right-left, boustrophedon	29	yes	Southern Arabia (now Yemen)	Southern Arabians	Amharic, Tigrinya, Tigre, Semitic, Cushitic, Nilo-Saharan ^{[citation needed]}	900 BCE ^[24]	Proto-Sinaitic	Geʽez syllabary (Ethiopia and Eritrea)
Sabaean	no	no	right-left, boustrophedon	29	none	Southern Arabia (Sheba)	Southern Arabians	Sabaic	c. 500 BCE^[19]	Byblos^[19]	Ethiopic (Eritrea & Ethiopia)^[19]
Parthian	no	no	right-left	22	yes	Parthia (modern-day equivalent of Northeastern Iran, Southern Turkmenistan and Northwest Afghanistan)^[19]	Parthian & Sassanian periods of Persian Empire^[19]	Parthian	c. 200 BCE^[19]	Aramaic
Ugaritic	no	yes	left-right	30	none, 3 characters for glottal stop + vowel	Ugarit (modern-day Ras Shamra in Northern Syria)	Ugarites	Ugaritic, Hurrian	c. 1400 BCE^[19]	Proto-Sinaitic (or some unknown intermediary script)
Proto-Sinaitic, Proto-Canaanite	no	no	left-right	24	none	Egypt, Sinai, Canaan	Canaanites	Canaanite	c. 1900 – c. 1700 BCE	In conjunction with Egyptian Hieroglyphs ^{[citation needed]}	Paleo-Hebrew, Phoenician, Aramaic,Hebrew
Samaritan	yes (700 people)	no	right-left	22	none	Levant	Samaritans (Nablus and Holon)	Samaritan Aramaic, Samaritan Hebrew	c. 100 BCE – c. 1 CE	Paleo-Hebrew Alphabet
Tifinagh	yes	no	bottom-top, right-left, left-right,	31	yes	North Africa	Berbers	Berber languages	2nd millennium BCE^[25]	Phoenician, Arabic	Neo-Tifinagh
Middle Persian, (Pahlavi)	no	no	right-left	22	3	Middle East	Sassanian Empire	Pahlavi, Middle Persian	c. 200 BCE – c. 700 CE	Aramaic	Psalter Pahlavi, Avestan^[19]
Psalter Pahlavi	no	yes	right-left	21	yes	Northwestern China^[19]	Persian Script for Paper Writing^[19]		0400 c. 400 CE^[26]	Syriac ^{[citation needed]}
Sogdian	no	no (yes in later versions)	right-left, left-right (vertical)	20	3	parts of China (Xinjiang), Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan	Buddhists, Manichaens	Sogdian	0400 c. 400 CE	Syriac	Old Uyghur alphabet^[19]
Hanifi Rohingya	yes	no	right-left	28	2	northern Rakhine State and Chittagong	Rohingya people	Rohingya language	1980s	Arabic
Thaana	yes	yes	right-left	24	1	Maldives	Maldivians	Maldivian (Dhivehi)	17th century	Arabic, Dhives Akuru
Libyco-Berber	no	no	bottom-top,right left,left-right	23	none	North Africa	Berbers	Guanche, Garamantian	c. 7th century	Tifinagh
Chorasmian	no	no	right-left	19	none	Khwarazm	Ancient Iranian peoples	Khwarezmian language	early 8th century	Sogdian
Elymaic	no	no	right-left	22	1	Khuzestan province,Iran	Ancient Iranian peoples	Achaemenid Aramaic	2nd century	Aramaic
Hatran	no	no	right-left	22	none	Iraq	Mesopotamians	Hatran Aramaic	100 BCE	Aramaic
Manichaean	no	no	right-left	25	2	Northwest China		Middle Iranian	2nd century	Sogdian	Palmyrene
Palmyrene	no	no	right-left	23	none	Syria		Palmyrene Aramaic	100 BCE	Aramaic, Manichaean

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References

[1]
"abjad". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
[2]
Boyes, Philip J.; Steele, Philippa M. (10 October 2019). Understanding Relations Between Scripts II. Oxbow Books. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-78925-092-3.
[3]
Lehmann, Reinhard G. (2012). de Voogt, Alex; Quack, Joachim Friedrich (eds.). The Idea of Writing: Writing Across Borders. Leiden, Boston: Brill. p. 35. ISBN 9789004215450.
[4]
Daniels, P. (1990). "Fundamentals of Grammatology". Journal of the American Oriental Society, 110(4), 727-731. doi:10.2307/602899. "We must recognize that the West Semitic scripts constitute a third fundamental type of script, the kind that denotes individual consonants only. It cannot be subsumed under either of the other terms. A suitable name for this type would be "alephbeth", in honor of its Levantine origin, but this term seems too similar to "alphabet" to be practical; so I propose to call this type an "abjad", from the Arabic word for the traditional order [Footnote: I.e., the alif-ba-jim order familiar from earlier Semitic alphabets, from which the modern order alif-ba-ta-tha is derived by placing together the letters with similar shapes and differing numbers of dots. The abjad is the order in which numerical values are assigned to the letters (as in Hebrew).] of its script, which (unvocalized) of course falls in this category. There is yet a fourth fundamental type of script, a type recognized over forty years ago by James-Germain Fevrier, called by him the "neosyllabary" (1948, 330), and again by Fred Householder thirty years ago, who called it "pseudo-alphabet" (1959, 382). These are the scripts of Ethiopia and "greater India" that use a basic form for the specific syllable consonant + a particular vowel (in practice always the unmarked a) and modify it to denote the syllables with other vowels or with no vowel. Were it not for this existing term, I would propose maintaining the pattern by calling this type an "abugida", from the Ethiopian word for the auxiliary order of consonants in the signary."
[5]
Amalia E. Gnanadesikan (2017), "Towards a typology of phonemic scripts", Writing Systems Research, 9:1, 14-35, doi:10.1080/17586801.2017.1308239. "Daniels (1990, 1996a) proposes the name abjad for these scripts, and this term has gained considerable popularity. Other terms include partial phonemic script (Hill, 1967), segmentally linear defective phonographic script (Faber, 1992), consonantary (Trigger, 2004), consonant writing (Coulmas, 1989) and consonantal alphabet (Gnanadesikan, 2009; Healey, 1990). "
[6]
"Overview of the Abjad numerological system", Jonah Winters and Frank Lewis, Overview of the Abjad numerological system, Baháʾí Library Online, 1999, quote: "The word abjad is an acronym derived from the first four consonantal shapes in the Arabic alphabet -- Alif, Bá, Jim, Dál. As such abjad designates the letters of the Arabic alphabet (also known as alifbá') in the phrase hurúf al-abjad. An adjective formed from this, abjadí, means a novice at something. Nowadays the Arabic alphabet does not follow the sequence a-b-j-d, but rather the order: A-B-T-Th-J-H.-Kh-D (the basic shapes of the letters A-B-J-D without their diacritical dots do, however, occur in that order, insofar as T and Th are distinguished from B only by dots, and the H. and Kh from the J only by dots). However, the order A-B-J-D is quite ancient, insofar as the word abjad is not of Arabic origin, but comes from earlier written alphabets, perhaps from Phoenician though the sequence may be as old as Ugaritic. In any case, it certainly predates the writing down of Arabic, as can be seen by comparison of Hebrew (Aleph, Beth, Gimel, Daleth) and Greek (Alpha Beta Gamma Delta)." Accessed 2 November 2025.
[7]
Daniels & Bright 1996.
[8]
Lehmann 2011.
[9]
Coulmas, Florian (2004). Writing Systems. Cambridge University Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-521-78737-6.
[10]
"Abjads / Consonant alphabets", Omniglot.com, 2009, quote: "Abjads, or consonant alphabets, represent consonants only, or consonants plus some vowels. Full vowel indication (vocalisation) can be added, usually by means of diacritics, but this is not usually done." Accessed 22 May 2009.
[11]
Rogers, Henry (2005): Writing systems: a linguistic approach. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-23464-0, ISBN 978-0-631-23464-7. See esp. Chap. 7, pp. 115ff.
[12]
Schone, Patrick (2006): "Low-resource autodiacritization of abjads for speech keyword search", In INTERSPEECH-2006, paper 1412-Mon3FoP.13.
[13]
Lam, Joseph (2015). "Ch. 12. The Invention and Development of the Alphabet". In Woods, Christopher; Teeter, Emily; Emberling, Geoff (eds.). Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond. Oriental Institute Museum Publications No. 32 (2nd, revised with minor corrections ed.). The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. pp. 189–190. ISBN 9781885923769. The hybrid nature of these earliest signs gives us clues regarding the sociohistorical context for the origins of the alphabet. On the one hand, most if not all of these earliest pictographs have plausible connections to Egyptian hieroglyphic (and perhaps hieratic) symbols, implying that the inventors were influenced at some level by Egyptian writing. On the other hand, the phonemes represented by these symbols are derived from the West Semitic (and not Egyptian) words behind the pictographs. For instance, the sign for a hand is used to denote the /k/ sound through the West Semitic word kaph for "palm" or "hand", a word that also comes to be the name of the letter. (For comparison, the Modern Hebrew name for the corresponding letter is precisely kaph; note also the Greek letter name kappa.) This association of the letter name (kaph) with its initial phoneme (/k/) is called the acrophonic principle (acro- "topmost" + phone "voice, sound"), and the fact that it is via the Semitic vocabulary that such a principle operates suggests that the linear alphabet arose for the purpose of writing a Semitic language. In fact, it is based on this assumption that the Sinai inscriptions have been partially deciphered, 6 revealing intelligible phrases such as lba􏱇t ("for the Lady") and rb nqbnm ("chief of the miners").
[14]
Ibn Durayd, Ta'līq min amāli ibn durayd, ed. al-Sanūsī, Muṣṭafā, Kuwait 1984, p. 227 (Arabic). The author purports that a poet from the Kinda tribe in Yemen who settled in Dūmat al-Ǧandal during the advent of Islam told of how another member of the Yemenite Kinda tribe who lived in that town taught the Arabic script to the Banū Qurayš in Mecca and that their use of the Arabic script for writing eventually took the place of musnad, or what was then the Sabaean script of the kingdom of Ḥimyar: "You have exchanged the musnad of the sons of Ḥimyar / which the kings of Ḥimyar were wont to write down in books."
[15]
Daniels 2013.
[16]
Lipiński 1994.
[17]
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin, eds. (2012). "Introduction". The Afroasiatic languages. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 9780521865333. Speakers of Semitic languages, which belong to the Afroasiatic phylum, developed the alphabetic writing system which, with numerous modifications, is now used in thousands of languages throughout the world. The development of the alphabetical writing system may have been facilitated by the underlying structure of verbal roots and derived nominal forms in Semitic languages, where the consonantal structure alone conveyed a great deal of semantic information.
[18]
Rubin, Aaron D.; Kahn, Lily (2021). "Introduction". Jewish Languages from A to Z. New York: Routledge. p. x. ISBN 9781138487284. Given their intimate familiarity with the Hebrew alphabet...it is not surprising that Jews very often used the Hebrew alphabet to write down whatever language they were speaking. Thus, we find Hebrew-letter texts in which the language is actually Arabic, Greek, French, Persian, or something else. All told, there are at least three dozen languages that have been written down at least once using Hebrew letters. The fact that a language was written in the Hebrew alphabet does not always mean that, when read aloud or spoken, it sounded any different from the non-Jewish variety of that language, but it does mean that on the page the language looked completely different and was recognizably Jewish. For some languages, such as Malay, Urdu, and Zulu (Fanagalo), we have only just one or some very small number of texts written in Hebrew letters. For others, such as Yiddish, Ladino, or Judeo-Arabic, we have many thousands of texts, written over a period of hundreds of years. Nevertheless, all are examples of Jews using Hebrew letters to record their language.
[19]
Ager 2015.
[20]
Ekhtiar 2011, p. 21.
[21]
Nehmé, L. (2010). A Glimpse of the Development of the Nabataean Script into Arabic Based on Old and New Epigraphic Material. In Macdonald, M.C.A. (Ed.), The Development of Arabic as a Written Language: Papers from the Special Session of the Seminar for Arabian Studies Held on 24 July, 2009. Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, 40, Supplement (pp. 47–88). Archaeopress. JSTOR 41224043. LCCN 2011-380284.
[22]
Lo 2012.
[23]
Guzzo, Maria Giulia Amadasi (2014). "Punic Scripts". In Jo Ann Hackett and Walter Emanuel Aufrecht (ed.). "An Eye for Form": Epigraphic Essays in Honor of Frank Moore Cross. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-303-4. LCCN 2014-11285. The place to begin is with a definition of what can be called a Punic script in relation to a Punic language. Conventionally, we call "Punic" the writing typical of Carthage, which spread to other colonies when the "New City" became the "capital" of the Phoenician west. Judging from the existing data on the history of the region, Carthage became leader of the other colonies around the middle to the end of the 6th century BC, when we first know of symbola with the Etruscan cities, the first treaty with Rome (ca. 509 BC), and the first Carthaginian involvement in wars in Sardinia and Sicily. One can suppose that, before this period, the Phoenician language, written according to Phoenician orthographic and paleographic conventions, was still in use in the west, with some local changes in the scripts from region to region or from city to city… As for language, the Phoenician-Punic grammars (the authors of which generally do not agree on the classification of the different phases and dialects of Phoenician) make a distinction between Phoenician and Punic. They lack precision, however, when they attempt to define the characteristics of Punic and the period in which it originated… We are able to distinguish Punic from Phoenician (in part) because of the orthography of the written language. The first linguistic characteristic we can recognize is the tendency to drop the pronunciation of the laryngeal ʾalep, followed by he (in Punic), and finally, the whole series of laryngeals and pharyngeals (in late Punic).
[24]
Cherry, Ashur (2023), The Epigraphic South Arabian Script (900 B.C.E. – 600 C.E.
[25]
Franklin, Natalie R.; Strecker, Matthias (5 August 2008). Rock Art Studies - News of the World Volume 3. Oxbow Books. p. 127. ISBN 9781782975885.
[26]
"PAHLAVI PSALTER – Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org.

Etymology

Terminology

Origins and history

Impure abjads

Addition of vowels

Abjads and the structure of Semitic languages

Adaptation for use as true alphabets

Comparative chart of abjads, extinct and extant

See also

References

Sources

External links

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