Helambu Rural Municipality

Early Settlement and Ancient History

The Helambu region has been inhabited since ancient times by the Hyolmo (also called Yolmo), Tamang, and Sherpa communities. These groups have maintained distinct cultural, linguistic, and religious traditions rooted in Tibetan Buddhist influence, and their settlements have shaped the landscape, temples, monasteries, and trade routes of the region for many centuries. In the past, the region served as an important corridor for trade between Nepal's inner Himalayan valleys and Tibet, and this sustained cultural exchange over generations profoundly shaped local traditions, language, craft, and spiritual life.^[5]

The founding of the Palchoki Mai Temple is traced by local tradition to approximately the 5th century CE, making it one of the oldest recorded sites of worship in the broader Sindhupalchok region. The area's religious significance extended to both Hindu and Buddhist traditions, with Hindu settlers establishing temples in the lower valleys and Buddhist communities building gompas in the higher elevations.

Formation of the Municipality

Prior to 2017, the area that now forms Helambu Rural Municipality was administered as separate Village Development Committees. The former Helambu VDC (from which the municipality takes its name) was originally called Timbughyangul VDC and then Tarkeghyang Panchayat, before being renamed Helambu following the first elected VDC after the 2049 BS (1992 CE) elections. The name Timbughyangul itself is believed to contain references to the settlements of Timbu and Ghangyul within the area.^[6]

Under Nepal's federal restructuring in 2017, five former VDCs — Helambu, Kiul, Palchok, Ichok, and Mahankal — were merged to form the Helambu Rural Municipality. In the restructuring, both the Mahankal and Ichok VDCs were each divided into two wards, resulting in the current seven-ward structure. The municipality is one of 12 local governments (3 municipalities and 9 rural municipalities) within Sindhupalchok District.^[7]

Location and Terrain

Helambu Rural Municipality lies in the northern part of Sindhupalchok District, approximately 80 kilometres northeast of Kathmandu. It is accessible via the Araniko Highway to Melamchi junction and then via the Melamchi–Helambu road. The municipality spans a dramatic range of elevations — from roughly 1,000 metres above sea level in the lower river valleys to over 5,000 metres at the high-altitude ridges and glacial zones near the Jugal Himal.^[8]

This vertical diversity creates a remarkable range of ecosystems within the municipality's boundaries: subtropical forests in the lower zones, temperate forests of oak, pine, and rhododendron at middle elevations, and subalpine and alpine terrain above the treeline. The landscape includes deep river valleys, terraced farmlands, high ridges, glacial lakes, and mountain pastures used for seasonal yak herding.

The municipality borders Rasuwa District to the north and west, and is surrounded by other local governments of Sindhupalchok to the south and east. Key rivers flowing through the area include the Melamchi Khola (the main river), and tributaries such as the Timbu Khola and Gohore Khola, which descend from the high mountains and support both irrigation and domestic water use in the settlements below.

Wards and Key Settlements

Helambu Rural Municipality is divided into 7 wards, each corresponding to a former VDC or part of one:

Climate

The climate of Helambu Rural Municipality varies significantly with altitude. Lower wards (around 1,000–2,000 m) experience a subtropical highland climate, with warm summers and mild winters. Middle elevations (2,000–3,500 m), where most villages are located, have a temperate climate with cool summers and cold winters, with snowfall possible from December to February. Higher zones above 3,500 metres experience alpine conditions, with heavy snowfall in winter and a short warm season.

The monsoon season runs from June to September, bringing heavy rainfall and increasing the risk of landslides and flooding in valley areas. The pre-monsoon spring (March–May) and post-monsoon autumn (October–November) are generally considered the best seasons for trekking and outdoor activities.

Municipal Structure

Helambu Rural Municipality is governed by an elected Municipal Council and Executive Committee, with an elected Chairperson and Vice-Chairperson at the head. Below the municipal level, each of the 7 wards is governed by an elected Ward Committee, headed by a Ward Chairperson.

The municipality's administrative headquarters is located in the Melamchi area, which serves as the main commercial and services hub for the region.

Formation History

The municipality was established on 10 March 2017 when the Government of Nepal restructured local government units pursuant to the Constitution of Nepal 2015, which established Nepal's federal system with three tiers of government: federal, provincial, and local. The merger of five former VDCs into one rural municipality was part of a nationwide consolidation that reduced Nepal's local government units from thousands of VDCs to 753 local levels.

Religion

According to the 2021 Nepal census, Buddhism is the dominant religion in Helambu Rural Municipality, followed by Hinduism. Smaller communities practise Christianity, Islam, Kirat, Prakriti, and other faiths.

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Population

According to the 2021 Nepal census, Helambu Rural Municipality had a total population of 17,497. The 2011 census had recorded a population of 17,671, reflecting a slight decline of 174 persons (−0.98%) over the decade, likely due to outmigration for education and economic opportunities in Kathmandu and abroad.

The population density is approximately 61 persons per km². The gender ratio of the 2011 census showed 94 males for every 100 females, indicating a higher rate of male outmigration compared to females.^[10]

Ethnicity

According to the 2011 and 2021 Nepal censuses, Helambu Rural Municipality is predominantly inhabited by the Tamang and Hyolmo/Yolmo communities. Smaller populations include Chhetri, Brahmin, Sanyasi/Dashnami, Bishwakarma, Newar, Sherpa, Pariyar, and Magar communities.

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Language

The most widely spoken language in the municipality is Tamang, spoken by approximately 8,479 people (combining both male and female speakers). The Tamang language is spoken by 4,328 females and 4,151 males within the municipality. Other languages spoken in the municipality include:

• Nepali — the national language, widely understood across all communities
• Hyolmo/Yolmo — the traditional language of the indigenous Hyolmo people
• Newar
• Sherpa
• Gurung
• Maithili
• Magar^[13]

Hinduism

Buddhism

Agriculture and Horticulture

The economy of Helambu Rural Municipality is primarily agrarian, with a large majority of households engaged in subsistence and small-scale commercial agriculture. The main crops grown in the municipality include maize, millet, potatoes, wheat, and a variety of vegetables suited to the temperate mountain climate.

Helambu is particularly renowned for its sweet apples, which are grown at the higher elevations of the municipality and are sold in Kathmandu and other urban markets. The apples of Helambu are considered among the finest produced in Nepal and have been a distinctive feature of the region's agricultural economy for generations.

Animal Husbandry

Cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, and — at higher elevations — yak and yak-cow hybrids (chauri) are raised throughout the municipality. Yak herding at high-altitude pastures (kharka) is a traditional practice of the Hyolmo communities, providing milk, cheese, meat, and transport for goods in the mountain terrain. Potatoes, yak milk, and dairy products form an important part of the diet and local food economy.

Rainbow Trout Farming

Helambu Rural Municipality has emerged as one of Nepal's leading regions for commercial rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming, owing to the cold, clean, fast-flowing mountain streams and river waters that provide ideal conditions for trout cultivation. The industry developed from the early 2010s and has become a significant economic activity in the municipality.

Commercial trout farming in Helambu began around 2014 when pioneering farmers such as the Bhandari brothers of Kiul Pati village (Ward No. 2) established the first farms in the area. In their initial year, the Bhandari brothers incurred losses while learning the trade, but over five years of experimentation and refinement they became expert trout farmers, ultimately building a business earning approximately Rs 5 million annually from their farm, which covers 5 ropanis of land and produces 10 tonnes of fish per year. They also established the Rainbow Trout Research Centre in Kiul Pati, which produces over 200,000 fingerlings annually and serves as a training facility for aspiring trout farmers from across Nepal.^[26]

Rainbow trout thrive in water temperatures between 9°C and 18°C — conditions that occur naturally year-round in the mountain streams fed by glacial snowmelt in Helambu. According to the District Agriculture Development Office, there are approximately 10 trout farms in Sindhupalchok District, which together produce around 16 tonnes of fish annually. Demand for Helambu trout comes from Kathmandu restaurants and hotels, as well as from international visitors who prize its freshness and quality.

Trout farming is significant for the municipality beyond its direct income value: it provides a high-value alternative income source for mountain households, supports the growth of agritourism (visitors come specifically to fish, dine on fresh trout, and learn about sustainable mountain agriculture), and has attracted national policy attention as a model for mountain entrepreneurship. The Helambu Rainbow Trout and Organic Farm is among the most prominent enterprises in the municipality, having been recognised at the national level and praised by senior government officials for its organic practices and professional standards.^[27]

The 2021 Melamchi flood caused severe damage to trout farms in the municipality, but the industry has been gradually rebuilding since then.

Tourism

Tourism is a growing component of the municipality's economy. The Helambu trekking circuit, Ama Yangri trek, Palchoki Mai Temple pilgrimage, and proximity to the Langtang region attract both domestic and international visitors. Local communities have developed homestays, teahouses, and lodges that provide accommodation and food to trekkers, generating income for households along the main routes.

Education

According to 2017 government records, there were 38 schools operating in Helambu Rural Municipality, with an average of 93 students per school. The schools serve all seven wards of the municipality, though the remoteness of some upper wards makes access to secondary and higher education challenging for some students. Many young people from the municipality travel to Kathmandu or district headquarters for higher education.^[28]

Health

Transport

The municipality is accessible from Kathmandu via the Araniko Highway to the Melamchi junction, and then via the Melamchi–Helambu road that winds through the hills into the valley. The road reaches Timbu, from which a further road of variable quality extends to Tarkeghyang and upper settlements. During the monsoon season, road access can be disrupted by landslides, and some wards may temporarily become inaccessible by road.

The 2021 Melamchi flood caused severe damage to road infrastructure and bridges in the municipality, with several suspension bridges and motorable bridges destroyed. Reconstruction has been ongoing but remains incomplete in some areas.

Overview

The Melamchi River (Nepali: मेलम्चि खोला) is the principal river flowing through Helambu Rural Municipality and is the most important waterway of the entire Sindhupalchok region. The river originates from the Jugal Himal glaciers at an elevation of approximately 5,875 metres (19,275 ft) above sea level, making Helambu Rural Municipality the geographical origin and upper catchment of this significant river system. The Melamchi River flows southward for approximately 41 kilometres before joining the Indrawati River at Melamchi Bazaar downstream. The river's total catchment area up to its confluence is 330 km², and its mean annual flow is 9.7 m³/s, reaching a maximum flow of 289 m³/s during peak monsoon floods.^[29]

Ecological Importance

The Melamchi River and its tributaries — including the Timbu Khola and Gohore Khola — are the ecological backbone of the municipality. Their cold, clear, fast-flowing waters sustain biodiversity, provide irrigation for terraced farms, supply drinking water for households, and support the fish (notably trout) that have become an important part of the local economy. The river systems also contribute to maintaining the forests, pastures, and alpine ecosystems that define Helambu's remarkable landscape diversity.

Melamchi Water Supply Project

The Melamchi Water Supply Project is Nepal's most significant urban water supply infrastructure project, designed to address Kathmandu Valley's chronic and severe water shortage by diverting water from the Melamchi River to the capital through a 27.5-kilometre headrace tunnel. The intake headworks of the project are located in the Helambu area, making the municipality the primary source of Kathmandu's supplemental drinking water supply.^[30]

The project, which took many years to complete due to engineering challenges, earthquakes (2015), and flood damage (2021), represents a direct connection between Helambu and the daily lives of hundreds of thousands of Kathmandu residents. The project intake and associated infrastructure are a notable point of interest for visitors to the region and have brought significant economic activity, employment, and infrastructure development to the municipality. The 2021 Melamchi flood caused major damage to project infrastructure, temporarily setting back water supply operations to Kathmandu.

Overview

Helambu Rural Municipality is one of Nepal's important trekking and cultural tourism destinations, offering a combination of Himalayan scenery, Hyolmo and Tamang cultural heritage, Buddhist monasteries, Hindu pilgrimage sites, and natural attractions within relatively easy reach of Kathmandu. Tourism has developed more gradually here than in the Everest or Annapurna regions, which has helped preserve the area's cultural authenticity and natural environment. Local communities have embraced tourism through the development of homestays, community lodges, and guided trekking services.^[31]

Helambu Trek (Yolmo Heritage Trail)

The Helambu Trek, also known as the Helambu Circuit or Yolmo Heritage Trail, is one of the most accessible major trekking routes in Nepal and is particularly well-suited for those with limited time or who are new to Himalayan trekking. The circuit typically takes 7 to 8 days to complete and begins and ends close to Kathmandu, making it a convenient option for visitors who cannot afford a long journey to more remote regions.

The trail passes through a diverse range of landscapes: subtropical valleys, temperate forests rich with rhododendron, pine, and juniper, open ridgelines with panoramic Himalayan views, and traditional Hyolmo and Tamang villages. Key villages along the route include Chisapani, Tharepati, Melamchi Ghyang, Tarkeghyang, and Sermathang. At Tharepati, trekkers are rewarded with sweeping views of major Himalayan peaks including the Langtang, Jugal Himal, Dorje Lakpa, Ganesh Himal, Gaurishankar, and on clear days, even the distant summit of Mount Everest.

The trek is accessible year-round, though the best seasons are spring (March–May) and autumn (October–November). The trek falls within the Langtang National Park area for its upper sections, and trekkers require a national park permit. The Helambu circuit is sometimes also called the "Yolmo Heritage Trail" in recognition of the living cultural heritage of the Hyolmo people that permeates the entire route — their monasteries, prayer flags, chortens, thangka paintings, masks, and traditional architecture are encountered throughout the journey.^[32]

Ama Yangri Trek

The Ama Yangri trek is one of the most rewarding short treks available near Kathmandu and is the primary trekking route to the sacred peak of Ama Yangri (3,771 m). The standard itinerary is a 5-day round trip from Kathmandu, making it suitable for beginner trekkers, families, and those wishing to combine a physical adventure with a profound cultural and spiritual experience.

The standard route runs: Kathmandu → Sankhu → Melamchi → Timbu → Tarkeghyang → Ama Yangri. From Kathmandu, it takes approximately 3 hours by road to reach the starting point of the trek in Melamchi. The trail from Tarkeghyang to the Ama Yangri summit takes approximately 3–4 hours of walking through beautiful forests of rhododendron (laliguras), pine, and juniper, with abundant bird and wildlife. Trekkers who start their ascent before dawn are rewarded with a spectacular sunrise over the Himalayas from the summit at 3,771 metres.

From the summit, on clear mornings, it is possible to see Langtang Lirung, Ganesh Himal, Gaurishankar, Dorje Lakpa, Jugal Himal, and even Shishapangma and distant Mount Everest. The summit monastery and prayer flags add a spiritual dimension to the physical achievement of reaching the top. The Ama Yangri trek requires both the Langtang National Park permit and the Shivapuri National Park permit.

During winter, Ama Yangri receives snowfall, making it an accessible destination for those wishing to experience snow sports and snow trekking within a few hours of Kathmandu.

Langtang Region Connection

Helambu Rural Municipality serves as a southern gateway to the broader Langtang trekking region. From the upper wards of the municipality, several classic trekking routes connect Helambu with:

• Gosaikunda — a sacred cluster of alpine lakes revered in both Hindu and Buddhist traditions, connected via the Lauribina La pass (4,610 m)
• Langtang Valley — Nepal's third most popular trekking region, accessible by crossing high passes from the Helambu circuit
• Panch Pokhari — five sacred lakes at high altitude, sacred to both Hindus and Buddhists, reachable from Melamchi

These connections give trekkers passing through Helambu the option of extending their journey into some of Nepal's finest high-altitude terrain.

Palchoki Mai Temple as a Tourist Site

In addition to its religious significance, Palchoki Mai Temple in Ward No. 3 has become a prominent tourist attraction drawing visitors from Kathmandu Valley and beyond. Following improvements to road access, the opening of hotels and guesthouses in the Palchok area, and the municipality's active work on a temple development master plan, Palchok has been transformed from a remote pilgrimage site into an accessible day-trip or overnight destination. The natural environment, the altitude, the Himalayan views accessible from the temple area, and the cultural originality of Palchok village all add to the appeal for non-religious visitors as well as pilgrims.^[33]

Melamchi Water Supply Project Visitor Interest

The intake and infrastructure of the Melamchi Water Supply Project, located in the Helambu area, draws curious visitors interested in Nepal's largest water infrastructure project. The tunnel and headworks represent a significant engineering achievement and a critical connection between the Himalayan watershed of Helambu and the urban population of Kathmandu.

Overview

Helambu Rural Municipality celebrates a rich and varied annual calendar of festivals, reflecting the multicultural Hindu and Buddhist character of its population. Festivals are not merely occasions for religious observance; they are also central to the renewal of community bonds, the expression of ethnic identity, and the continuation of living cultural traditions that define the Hyolmo, Tamang, Sherpa, Brahmin, and Chhetri communities of the municipality.

Dashain

Dashain (Nepali: दशैं) is the longest and most widely celebrated Hindu festival in Nepal and is observed with great enthusiasm across all communities of Helambu Rural Municipality. The festival falls during the Nepali month of Ashwin (September–October) and lasts for fifteen days, with the most important days being Ghatasthapana (the first day), Saptami, Maha Ashtami, Maha Navami, and Vijaya Dashami (the tenth day).

At Palchoki Mai Temple, Dashain is the most important festival of the year, drawing the largest annual pilgrimage gatherings. The Navami day (ninth day of Dashain) sees a particularly grand fair (mela) at the temple, when thousands of devotees arrive from across Sindhupalchok and neighbouring districts to offer prayers, perform rituals, and participate in worship. Chaite Dashain (the spring Dashain observed in the Nepali month of Chaitra, March–April) is also a major occasion at Palchoki Mai, with many devotees preferring the spring festival due to the pleasant weather and flowering landscapes of the season.

Throughout the municipality, Dashain is marked by the receiving of tika (a red mark applied on the forehead with yogurt, rice, and vermillion) and jamara (yellow grass seedlings grown during the festival) from elders, the slaughter of animals (goats, buffalo, ducks) as offerings, and the gathering of extended families.

Tihar

Tihar (Nepali: तिहार), also known as Deepawali or the Festival of Lights, falls in the Nepali month of Kartik (October–November), approximately fifteen days after Dashain. Over five days, different beings are worshipped: crows (Kag Tihar), dogs (Kukur Tihar), cows (Gai Tihar), oxen and Lakshmi the goddess of wealth (Laxmi Puja), and brothers (Bhai Tika). Homes and villages are decorated with oil lamps, candles, and colourful lights, and the air is filled with the singing of deusi-bhailo (traditional songs of Tihar) by groups of young people going from house to house.

Teej

Teej (Nepali: तीज) is a festival primarily celebrated by Hindu women, falling in the Nepali month of Bhadra (August–September). It is one of the most important festivals for women in the Hindu calendar: women dress in red, fast for a full day and night, sing and dance in groups, and worship Shiva and Parvati, praying for the health and long life of their husbands and, for unmarried women, for a good husband. In Helambu, Teej is observed at local Shiva temples and community gathering spaces, with the singing of traditional Teej songs (teej geet) a particularly vibrant and beloved part of the celebration.

Janai Purnima

Janai Purnima (Nepali: जनाइ पूर्णिमा), also called Raksha Bandhan or Gunhi Punhi, falls on the full moon (purnima) of the Nepali month of Shrawan (July–August). For Hindu men of the Brahmin and Chhetri communities, this day is the occasion for changing the sacred thread (janai) worn across the chest, a ritual that reaffirms their religious identity and commitment to dharma. For all Hindus and many Buddhists, Janai Purnima is an auspicious day when a yellow protective thread is tied on the wrist by priests as a blessing.

At Palchoki Mai Temple, Janai Purnima is one of the major fair days of the year, drawing large crowds of pilgrims. The festival's significance as a day shared by both Hindu and Buddhist communities in Helambu makes it a particularly vivid expression of the interfaith character of the municipality.

Sonam Losar

Sonam Losar (Tamang: सोनाम ल्होसार) is the Tamang New Year festival, one of the most important cultural events for the Tamang community that forms the plurality of Helambu's population. It falls on the second new moon after the winter solstice, corresponding approximately to the Nepali month of Magh (January–February).

Sonam Losar is celebrated with great communal joy: families visit monasteries and stupas bearing offerings and flowers, prayers are offered for deceased loved ones, special rituals with mask dances are performed to drive away evil spirits, and houses are thoroughly cleaned to welcome in gods and goddesses for the new year. The festival lasts for several days and is an occasion for gathering of extended families, community feasts, and the wearing of traditional Tamang dress.^[34]

Hyolmo Losar

Hyolmo Losar is the New Year festival of the Hyolmo/Yolmo community, also falling in the Nepali month of Magh (January–February), around the same time as Sonam Losar. For the Hyolmo people, Losar is the most important festival of the year, an occasion for affirming ethnic identity, religious devotion, and community solidarity. The celebrations include visiting and making offerings at gompas (monasteries), performing traditional Hyolmo music and dance, feasting on traditional foods, and spending time with family and community members.

The co-occurrence of Sonam Losar and Hyolmo Losar in the same period means that the month of Magh is a particularly festive time in Helambu, when both Tamang and Hyolmo communities celebrate their New Years in a spirit of shared joy and cultural pride.

Tshechu (Chhechu)

Tshechu (also spelled Chhechu) is an eleven-day Buddhist festival widely celebrated by the Hyolmo community throughout the Helambu region. It is observed every year beginning from the Panchami (5th day of the lunar calendar) following Sonam Losar, continuing until Purnima (the full moon). The festival is celebrated by the neighbouring villages of Sermathang, Tarkeghyang, Melamchi Ghyang, Nakote, Kutumsang, Ghangyul, Tshengyunche, Tapkharka, and Kaje — the key communities of Helambu Rural Municipality. During Tshechu, lamas perform religious rituals, sacred dances (cham) are performed in monastery courtyards, and the community gathers for shared worship, feasting, and cultural celebration.^[35]

Buddha Jayanti

Buddha Jayanti (also called Buddha Purnima) marks the birth, enlightenment, and death of the Lord Gautam Buddha, celebrated on the full moon of the Nepali month of Baisakh (April–May). In the Buddhist communities of Helambu, Buddha Jayanti is observed with gatherings at village monasteries and sacred monuments, the offering of prayers and flowers, the chanting of Buddhist hymns by lamas (monks) and religious leaders, the distribution of chho (prasad/blessed food), charity activities, and communal feasts. The festival is especially vibrant in the villages of Ward No. 1, where the largest monasteries are located.^[36]

Festival Summary Table

2015 Gorkha Earthquake (Bhukampa 2072 BS)

The 2015 Gorkha Earthquake, recorded in Nepal as the Mahabhukampa of Baisakh 12, 2072 BS, struck on 25 April 2015 at 11:56 AM Nepal Standard Time. The earthquake had a magnitude of 7.8 Mw on the Richter scale, with its epicentre at Barpak in Gorkha District, approximately 80 kilometres northwest of Kathmandu. The earthquake was followed by numerous aftershocks, including a powerful aftershock of 7.3 Mw on 12 May 2015 (Baisakh 29, 2072 BS), whose epicentre was located at the border between Sindhupalchok District and Dolakha District.^[37]

The earthquake killed nearly 9,000 people across Nepal and injured over 22,000, leaving more than 3.5 million people homeless. Sindhupalchok District was among the fourteen most severely affected districts in the country, and was in many ways the district that suffered the greatest proportional destruction: the powerful May 12 aftershock, whose epicentre was directly in Sindhupalchok, caused additional devastation to structures already weakened by the April 25 main shock.^[38]

In Sindhupalchok District as a whole:

• Over 63,885 houses were severely damaged
• A further 2,751 houses were moderately damaged
• Approximately 109,000 people (about 40% of the district population) were directly affected
• Around 90,000 people were identified as in urgent need of humanitarian assistance
• The initial death toll in the district alone reached 3,057 as of 7 May 2015, with an estimated 3,000 more people unaccounted for at that time

Within Helambu Rural Municipality specifically, the earthquake destroyed homes, temples, school buildings, community infrastructure, and water systems across all wards. Many families in the municipality spent months or years living under temporary tin-roof shelters before permanent reconstruction was completed. Remote wards, unreachable by road, faced particular delays in receiving relief materials and reconstruction support. The earthquake also caused significant geological damage to the hillsides — loosening vast amounts of rock and soil material on mountain slopes — which is widely identified by researchers as a major contributing factor to the severity of the 2021 Melamchi flood disaster, as this destabilized material was available to be mobilised by subsequent rainfall and water events.^[39]

2021 Melamchi Flood (Baadhipahiro 2078 BS)

In June 2021 (2078 BS), the Melamchi River experienced one of the most catastrophic flood and debris-flow events in Nepal's modern history, causing widespread destruction in Helambu Rural Municipality and downstream communities. The event, known as the 2021 Melamchi Flood or Melamchi Baadhpahiro, was a multi-hazard cascading disaster triggered by a combination of prolonged monsoon rainfall, multiple landslides, a temporary landslide dam on the Melamchi River, and the outburst of the Pemdan glacial lake located upstream in the Melamchi catchment area.