List of Ming dynasty era names

The Ming dynasty was an imperial dynasty that ruled over China proper from 1368 to 1644 during the late imperial era of China (960–1912). The dynasty was founded by the Hongwu Emperor, who successfully led a rebellion against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty, forcing the last Yuan emperor to flee China proper.^[1] After 276 years of rule,^[2] the Ming fell in 1644 when a rebel army led by Li Zicheng captured its primary capital, Beijing.^[3] Li subsequently established the Shun dynasty but was in turn defeated by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, which occupied northern China in the same year.^[4] Although they lost control of the north, members of the Ming imperial family—collectively known as the Southern Ming—continued to rule over southern China but were gradually pushed back by the Manchus until the last emperor, the Yongli Emperor, was executed in 1662 in Burma.^[5]

The Ming dynasty continued the use of era names, a system introduced by Emperor Wu of Han in 114 BC,^[6] or more formally in 110 BC.^[7] An era name (年號; Niánhào), or "reign motto", was chosen at the beginning of an emperor's reign to reflect the political, economic, or social conditions of the time.^[8] During the Ming dynasty, with the exception of Emperor Yingzong, who had two separate reigns, each emperor used only one era name throughout his reign,^[a] whereas emperors of earlier dynasties often adopted multiple era names.^[b] As a result, Ming emperors are commonly referred to by their era names.^[11]

The Ming had a total of 17 era names. The first, Hongwu, was inaugurated by the Hongwu Emperor in 1368, while the last, Chongzhen, ended when the Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide during the fall of Beijing in 1644. The longest-used era name was Wanli, lasting 48 years, while the shortest was Taichang, which succeeded Wanli and lasted only about four months.^[12]

The Southern Ming continued the use of era names, employing four in total: Hongguang, Longwu, Shaowu, and Yongli. The longest-lasting was Yongli, which endured for 16 years, while the shortest was Hongguang, lasting only five months;^[12] Shaowu, by contrast, was never effectively implemented.^[13]

In the Ming dynasty, a few days usually separated each emperor's reign. When a Ming emperor died, there was a period of mourning, after which their successor was crowned as soon a "propitious" day was chosen. Emperors reigned in their predecessor's era name until a new era name was declared at the beginning of the next year.^[14]

Foreign tributary states of the Ming dynasty, such as Joseon and the Ryukyu Kingdom, also adopted and used Ming era names. Following the Qing invasion of Joseon in 1637, Joseon was forced to submit to the Qing dynasty and officially followed the Qing calendar, but secretly continued to use the Chongzhen era name to express its loyalty to the Ming and opposition to the Qing.^[15]