Liu Kang (artist)

Among Liu's influences include his mentor Liu Haisu and the artist Henri Matisse's works.^[40]

In his early years making art, Liu focused on portraying the landscapes of places he visited, such as China and Europe. In his later career when he settled in Singapore, he shifted to creating artworks showcasing the average lives of people. According to Ong Zhen Min, Susie Wong, Patricia Ong, and Grace Tng, his portraiture "form[ed] the backbone of his work";^[41] they stated that Liu utilised different techniques depending on the subject, with his friends appearing "soft and natural" whilst portrayals of people in ethnic clothing or dancers were "overly contrived".^[41] For example, his oil painting portraits Malay Man (1942) and Portrait of a Man with a Cap (1949) feature impressionist and realistic styles, respectively.^[42] In later years, his art became more stylised, as seen in In Conversation (1999), which also experiments with a pointillist style.^[43]

The writer Sonia Kolesnikov-Jessop opined that French artist Henri Matisse "left a powerful and lasting imprint" on Liu, especially in relation to the styles of Fauvism and post-impressionism.^[44] The artist Xu Beihong once remarked, on seeing Liu's paintings at a 1940 exhibition, that "You are truly the teacher of Matisse".^[b][45] Along with Matisse, Liu drew inspiration from artists like Pablo Picasso, Paul Cézanne, Vincent van Gogh, and Paul Gauguin;^[46] the art critic Chia Wai Hon described his modernist view to have been influenced by such artists along with Chinese art.^[47]

Although Liu's work was influenced by "grand and heroic compositions", he did not focus on dramatic historical events. Instead, he drew inspiration from everyday life and portrayed people in their day-to-day activities in his paintings, through both subject matter and setting. In his still lifes, he replaced traditional motifs with local equivalents, such as tropical orchids, crabs, and fruits. He also depicted communal and social scenes.^[48] Liu also had an interest in life drawing, which began in his youth as a student and continued into his nineties, and he considered life drawing as a "fundamental foundation of art practice."^[49] Most of Liu's portraits, drawings, and sketches were based on what he observed, including family, friends, and occasionally strangers. Ethnic identity later became a notable theme in his work, reflected in titles such as Chinese Muslim Facing Front and Indian Policeman. These works are less psychologically focused but explored racial and occupational identities.^[50]

Liu frequently painted Singaporean landmarks, such as the Stamford Raffles statue (Black Statue, 1940) and the Tan Kim Seng Fountain (Near Elizabeth Walk, 1979). He also portrayed urban occupations, though he did not focus on social inequality. His preference towards local subjects and ordinary scenes displayed his interest towards depicting "Singapore's distinctive economic and cultural life", according to Ong, Wong, Ong, and Tng.^[48] He also created sketches of nudes frequently – in both pastels and oils – and typically depicted women, focusing on their beauty. According to Kolesnikov-Jessop, Liu excelled at depicted light on skin using pastels and included thick outlines. In oil, his drawings of the human body became more expressive and less realistic. As Liu got older, Kolesnikov-Jessop states that, possibly due to his worsening eyesight, his nudes became more stylised and simple while his colours were expressionistic.^[51]

Liu's works made before World War II, prior to the development of the Nanyang Style, displayed a link between Asian and Western art. For example, in Nude (1936), his use of colour shows influence from post-impressionism, while the thick black outline around the model is reminiscent of Chinese ink painting. These traits would become a trademark of his works in the Nanyang Style.^[52] Among other Nanyang artists, Liu's works are considered more fauvism and post-impressionism influenced.^[53] He was also the only of the Bali trip artists to create works mainly through oil painting.^[45] The Nanyang Style was described by the librarian Alicia Yeo as an "[articulation of] a Southeast Asian viewpoint through the integration of Chinese and Western elements",^[54] with Liu largely credited in its development.^[55]

A 2022 research study considered Liu's art style in the 1950s to have developed in conjunction with the development of the Nanyang Style. Paintings made from 1950 to 1953 feature broad areas of flat colours, limited shading, and minimal details. For example, Village (1950) and Government Office in Johore Bahru (1953) implement blocks of colours and strong outlines reminiscent of post-impressionism and Chinese calligraphy, respectively. Some works feature the white ground layer intentionally exposed for visual effects. However, two paintings from 1953, Scene in Bali and Offerings, differ in style from other works of this period, appearing more detailed and descriptive. This could have been due to Liu's interest in the Balinese culture and subject matter. Overall, Liu considered Bali as a place characterised by scenic landscapes, notable architecture, and local cultural life.^[56]

Outdoor Painting and Painting Kampong (both 1954) show innovation in his style from his 1950 to 1953 works, appearing more flat and simplified through solid colours and minimal texture from the paint. These works also feature dark outlines and exposed white ground, possibly taking influence from dye-resistance techniques done with batik textiles. Attempting the texture of batik in his paintings was influenced from his artist friend Chuah Thean Teng.^[56][20] For example, in Artist and Model (1954), the sarong of the model is detailed to keep its batik appearance.^[57] As Liu's Boats (1956) and Char Siew Seller (1958) were done over earlier compositions, they used a wet-on-wet and wet-on-dry technique to simulate exposed white ground, which affected the clean division between blocks of colour. Therefore, these paintings lack the detail and precision as compared to other 1950s paintings by him. Liu mainly painted with brushes, but occasionally used a palette knife for larger areas, creating impastos. In some works he also experimented with scraping wet paint to create additional visual detail.^[58]

A 2021 technical analysis of thirteen of Liu's works from his time in Paris was conducted by researchers Damian Lizun, Teresa Kurkiewicz, and Bogusław Szczupak using non-invasive methods.^[59] Although the exact brands of paint he used are unknown, evidence suggests that Liu possibly used paint from Lefranc & Bourgeois, Lechertier Barbe, Paris American Art, and S. C. & P. Harding.^[60] Liu's blue often appears purple, suggesting the use of ultramarine and/or cobalt blue. Small amounts of viridian were also detected, which together with the ultramarine, explains the purple appearance. An absence of Prussian blue was noted, possibly because its greenish tone and tendency to fade made it less suitable for depicting skies and water.^[61] The research showed that viridian was Liu's preferred green, although it often appeared mixed with pigments like emerald green, Prussian blue, chrome yellow, or cobalt blue. Cadmium yellow and lead white were frequently used in creating lighter green tones. Evidence suggests that Liu may have also used commercial chrome green – consisting of Prussian blue and chrome yellow – which was widely available at the time.^[62]

Analysis of Liu's use of yellow identified four different pigments, with chrome yellow being the most common, appearing as either a main component or combined with yellow iron oxide. Brown areas in his paintings were mainly created with brown and yellow iron oxides, with lighter tones including lead white or yellow containing chromium.^[63] Analysis of his red use produced three organic red pigments, used either as primary colours or mixed to adjust tone. In certain works, red areas were made up of red iron oxide with minor additions of other pigments.^[64] Liu tended to use lead white – often mixed with calcium carbonate – in most paintings, while in others he intentionally exposed the white ground layer, using it to depict foamy water. Zinc white, titanium white, and barium-based pigments were also detected in some areas, sometimes as commercial mixtures. Liu's blacks were almost always mixtures of black and different pigments, with some paintings featuring a more intense black colour made of carbon black combined with either Prussian blue, ultramarine, cobalt blue, or viridian.^[65]

Another 2021 study from Lizun, Kurkiewicz, and Szczupak found that Liu typically attached his canvases to strainers with a cross-member, although the specific manufacturer for either remains unknown. Contemporary price lists suggest that he may have purchased strainers instead of stretchers because they were cheaper. Liu was also known to have painted en plein air, as was advocated by impressionist, post-impressionist, and fauvist movements. He also used smaller paintings supports more frequently than larger supports, possibly due to easier transportation and cheaper costs.^[66] All the examined paintings were done on linen canvases in a plain weave, with two types of canvas identified: a thinner fabric used in most works and a denser fabric used less frequently. Evidence shows that Liu occasionally reused earlier canvases or painted on the reverse of previous works. Examination of works painted in Switzerland and Belgium revealed similar canvas and ground characteristics, suggesting that Liu may have brought painting materials with him when travelling.^[67]

A 2023 study of twelve of Liu's works during his time in Shanghai was conducted by researchers Lizun, Kurkiewicz, Szczupak, and Jarosław Rogóz. The brands of paint Liu used in Shanghai are unknown.^[68] Research showed that ultramarine was Liu's choice for blue – being used to depict skies and water – and often appeared mixed with Prussian blue, viridian, yellow ochre, or strontium yellow. He used viridian to depict green areas, though often combined with ultramarine, Prussian blue, and yellow chromate pigments. Liu also used emerald green, though in a limited capacity similar to its use in his Paris works, suggesting that he was uninterested in using it extensively. His yellow and brown tones were primarily created using yellow and red iron-rich earth pigments, yellow chromate pigments, and umber, with bone black occasionally used to darken brown shades.^[69] The white in Liu's paintings mainly consisted of barium white, zinc white, and lithopone. Black was used rarely – only in one sample – and was made from a mixture of Prussian blue, ultramarine, viridian, and bone black.^[70]

In a 2021 study from Lizun, Kurkiewicz, and Szczupak, a majority of his Shanghai works were painted en plain air and were likely stretched on unbranded strainers. He used canvases of typical sizes and sometimes reused canvases from earlier compositions.^[71] Liu used two types of canvas: a denser cotton canvas and a thinner linen canvas. He preferred using the cotton canvases (appearing in 19 paintings) likely due to their cheaper price.^[72] Most of his paintings included tacking margins and a white ground layer, suggesting they were prepared commercially. The research also indicated that he reused earlier canvases without adding an intermediate ground.^[73]

In 2022, a technical analysis of Liu's works and materials in the 1950s was conducted by researchers Lizun, Kurkiewicz, Mateusz Mądry, and Szczupak. They studied ten paintings of his, all of which were linen plain weave canvases with Z-twisted threads. Nine used bevelled strainers while one used a plywood board. Using technical examination, all the canvases were commercially prepared, with some reused and painted over from earlier compositions. Liu was known to sketch his ideas on paper, which displayed experimentation with styles such as cubism. Although it is unknown the brands of painting materials he used, a 1955 essay by Singaporean artist Ho Kok Hoe stated that "Viridian has become [Liu's] favourite colour, with vermilion and Prussian blue to harmonise with it".^[74]

Ultramarine was Liu's preferred blue pigment, often appearing alone or mixed with Prussian blue or viridian to create different shades. In a few cases, other blues such as manganese blue, cerulean blue, and cobalt blue were identified. He also experimented with phthalocyanine blue, but did not appear attracted to it.^[75] The research showed that viridian was Liu's preferred colour for green, and it often appeared mixed with ultramarine or Prussian blue. Minimal use of emerald green was found, which resembled his lack of interest towards the pigment in his Paris works. Liu created warmer green tones in his work by mixing it with cadmium yellow or its variants.^[76] Analysis of yellow areas found that cadmium yellow was the most common pigment, with chrome yellow, zinc yellow, yellow iron oxide, and cobalt yellow appearing less frequently. In comparison to his Paris works, chrome yellow's use decreased in favour of cadmium yellow.^[77]

Brown tones were typically created by mixing yellow and red iron oxides, with darker browns produced by adding pigments such as bone black or umber.^[77] Liu frequently used organic red pigments for red areas, often mixing them with yellow iron oxide, chrome yellow, or cadmium yellow to create different shades. Darker shades used bone black or ultramarine. Several organic reds and cadmium red were identified, but vermilion – described as an important pigment in his work – was not detected in any of his works. Analysing his use of white, Liu did not rely on a single white pigment, instead using a variety of whites such as lead white, zinc white, and barium-based whites. Black paint appeared occasionally and was mainly produced using bone black. It also appeared mixed with other colours.^[78]

A 2022 study of eleven of Liu's Huangshan and Guilin landscapes was conducted by researchers Lizun, Kurkiewicz, Szczupak, and Rogóz.^[80] Four of the paintings were made on unbranded textiles, while the rest made up three types of canvas. The first type is a high density plain-woven cotton canvas with S-twisted warp and Z-twisted weft threads, the second type is a basket-woven linen canvas with Z-twisted threads, and the third type is a plain-woven linen canvas also with Z-twisted threads. Some were commercially stretched, while others were stretched by Liu himself. He often used 4 millimetres (0.16 in) Masonite hardboards, which were better suited to support his technique of heavy impasto and scraping, though it is not known if he bought these in Singapore or China.^[81]

Microscopic analysis and archival photographs show that seven of these paintings were made without a ground layer; Liu painted directly onto the hardboard, sometimes over an earlier work, without applying a preparatory layer. Ground layers were only identified in four paintings.^[82] Although information on the brands of paint he used during this period is unknown, in a 1982 television documentary, it can be seen in his studio oil paint tubes from Royal Talens, Rowney, and Winsor & Newton; the latter appeared to date before 1957, indicating Liu may have used older stock. He was also known to have used Royal Talens's Rembrandt series and Rowney's Georgian series of oil paints in works from the 1990s. The researchers suggested that works from this period were painted with similar brands and that he may have mixed paints from several brands.^[83]

Liu's brown, yellow, and orange areas were mainly created using yellow and red iron-containing earth pigments, sometimes mixed with bone black or umber. Liu primarily used ultramarine for his blue areas, and it appeared mixed with cobalt blue and Prussian blue to create different shades. In green areas, his preferred green was viridian, though it often appeared combined with other pigments. Other greens such as phthalocyanine green were identified.^[84] Analysis showed that titanium white was commonly used for white areas such as clouds or mixed in with other pigments. Besides titanium white, analysis also found lithopone white, barium white, and zinc white. Liu did not use any black brushstrokes in the studied paintings. He was also known to make preparatory sketches.^[85]