Mexican mask-folk art

The use of masks and costumes was an important part of Mesoamerican cultures for long before the arrival of the Spanish. Evidence of masks made with bone thousands of years old have been found at Tequixquiac, State of Mexico.^[1] The uses of these masks were varied but always connected to ceremony and ritual, especially in theatrical dance and processions.^[2] High priests used masks to incarnate deities.^[2][3] Jaguar and eagle warriors dressed themselves like these animals in order to gain their strengths.^[2][4] Funeral masks were reserved for the burials of the very elite such as that of King Pakal and were works of art, made of jade, shell, obsidian, hematite and other precious materials of the time.^[5] Masks used in theatrical performances and dances varied widely: from depictions of the various animals of the Mesoamerican world, to images of old men and women generally for comedic relief, to designs that made fun of neighboring ethnic groups.^[2]

Some ancient masks made of stone or fired clay have survived to the present. However, most were made of degradable materials such as wood, amate paper, cloth and feathers. Knowledge of these types comes from codices, depictions on sculptures and the writings of the conquering Spanish.^[3][6] Indications of ancient mask types also exist through dances that have survived from the pre-Hispanic period, such as Tecuanes, Tigres and Tlacololeros.^[7]

After the Conquest of the Aztec Empire, a number of Spanish historians noted indigenous religious rituals and ceremonies including those that used masks.^[6] The Spanish banned pre-Hispanic religion but the evangelizers used the cultures’ propensity for masks and spectacle to propagate the new faith, through plays and dance.^[8][9][10] New dances evolved from the mystery plays and allegorical dramas used by evangelists.^[11] One of the most important was a pageant that reenacted the battles between Christians and Moors, which used masks to imitate the Moors.^[8] This dance was rapidly adopted by the indigenous and performed in indigenous languages.^[11] Other masked dances developed in relation to Holy Week, Day of the Dead and the Conquest of Mexico, as well as Carnival, a European festival introduced by the Spanish.^[9][12] The masks for characters such as Hernán Cortés, La Malinche, shepherds, devils, kings developed and became very diverse.^[11]

Little is known about masks from the colonial era, but at least some came from the same workshops that produced saint images, which had sophisticated and realistic depictions of faces. Others were mostly likely made by those who sold or rented costumes to performers. Some may have been made by the dancers themselves.^[12]

The developing dances and other masked events became part of a syncretism of Catholic and native traditions and belief, especially Carnival and Holy Week, with the first coinciding with the Aztec New Year and new agricultural cycle.^[11] In addition, many of the masks developed during this time mocked colonial overlords.^[13] For these reasons, at various times, masks and dances were forbidden by authorities from the 16th to 18th centuries.^[12][14]

Despite these prohibitions, masked celebrations survived until Independence, when Mexican Inquisition laws were completely repealed. What remained were a number of indigenous practices overlaid with Catholic and other European traditions.^[12][15] While traditional hand-crafted indigenous masks were not held in high esteem, in Mexican cities of the 19th century, the buying of masks and costumes at stores was done, especially for Carnival.^[16]

After the Mexican Revolution a number of aspects of traditional Mexican life became revalued, including traditional and rural handcrafts.^[17] Today, masked festivals and dances are most prevalent in areas of the country with large concentrations of indigenous peoples.^[18] Sophisticated masks made by saint makers still can be found in the states of Tlaxcala, Puebla, Oaxaca, Chiapas and Michoacán, but in most areas masks are made by lesser craftsmen.^[18] Past history and customs live on in traditional dances. These include the Conquest, Independence, and the Battle of Puebla, using masked characters.^[19]

Today, most mask use is related to celebrations and rituals, although modern images and new variations have entered modern popular culture. Traditional masks have been carved with images of figures such as Pedro Infante and Cantinflas.^[20] The influence of Halloween from the United States has resulted in the appearance of commercially made masks for the days around Day of the Dead.^[21] Masked characters appear in comics, television and movies such as El Chapulín Colorado and Karmatron. However, the most important uses of masks in Mexican popular culture are those associated with lucha libre, or professional wrestling.^[22] Here, the mask is a symbol of the wrestler's professional identity. It is made of fabric and envelops the head as well as the face, with plastic reinforcement around the eyes and mouth. Designs are unique to each wrestler and they fight to defend this identity. A number of these masks have been passed down from father to son, such as those of El Santo, Blue Demon, Los Hermanos Dinamita, Tinieblas and Dos Caras. In the case of a bout called “lucha de apuestos” the loser loses his mask and his real face is revealed. After this, the mask can never be used again.^[23]

Masks in Mexico are used in a wide variety of dance, ceremony, festivals and theater, with their wearing not separate from the event in which they are used.^[24][25] The most common uses are in traditional dances, which are a form of theater, with characters, storyline and music, but the performers are not professionals.^[19][26] The purpose of the masks is to convert participants into other beings or characters.^[27] This element is so important in many events that if a dancer does not use a mask, he often wears dark glasses to indicate that he is not his normal self. A double sense of masking is to use dark glasses over a mask.^[28]

With few exceptions, dances are performed by males, who play both male and female roles wearing masks. The reason for this is that it was not considered proper for women in Europe to act or dance, a prohibition brought to Mexico by the Spanish. One important character of this type is La Malinche, in dances about the Conquest.^[29]

Masked events range from small part parts on ranches, tribes and neighborhoods to large town and city comicons for the major events of the Catholic calendar such as Christmas, Carnival, Holy Week, Feast of the Cross, Corpus Christi, Day of the Dead and the feast days of major saints.^[18] Masks are most extensively used for Carnival, Holy Week and Day of the Dead and worn as part of an elaborate costume.^[9][26] Masks for Carnival vary widely and include old men, farmers, Afro-Mexicans, death and various animals.^[30] Notable Carnival celebrations include “tiger” pageants in Oaxaca, Chiapas and Tabasco; portrayals of colonial village life in State of Mexico; and a reenactment of the Battle of Puebla in Huejotzingo. Another popular type of mask at this time is one that ridicules the wealthy and powerful of colonial Mexico, such as with the dance of the Chinelos in Tlayacapan, Morelos. Some of the masquerades such as Viejos y diablos are humorous with sexual overtones. Many of these dances also relate to the coming rainy season when most agricultural production occurs, with pleas for rain and the use of corn.^[24] Pageants and here are groups of “persecutors” of Jesus which can be called “judios” (Jews), “fareséos” (Pharisees), “romanos” (Romans) or “chapokobam”.^[13][31] One example of mask use for Day of the Dead is among the Huastecs, who portray their ancestors in this manner for the occasion.^[32]

Traditional masks are a dancer's prized possession.^[33] Most dancers try to keep their mask in new condition and will take masks in to be cleaned and repainted.^[34] In a number of communities, such as the Chontals in Tabasco, masks are generally kept in the local church when not in use. At the other end of the spectrum, the masking, wearing and destruction of a mask is part of Holy Week rituals among the Cora, Yaqui and Mayo. The Cora destroy their papier-mâché masks by immersing them in a local river while the Yaqui and Mayo burn them. In both cases, it is an act of purification.^[13][35][36]

Traditional masks are still handcrafted. Most traditional communities have one person who specializes in the craft. This person is almost always male who has learned the trade from his father, with the occasional exception of a widow continuing her husband's trade.^[34][37] Some mask makers specialize in those for a particular dance.^[38] Mask makers are respected as they need to know the significance of each dance to make the appropriate masks.^[34] Most mask makers have other occupations such as baker, wax worker, factory worker or carpenter.^[39] A number of mask makers are also makers of religious images called “santeros.” These craftsmen tend to make masks with fine features and finishes that imitate human skin.^[33][34] Production is aimed almost exclusively to dancers, although masks are also made for collectors, and more fantastic ones for the tourist market, especially in Guerrero.^[34] It can be difficult to distinguish these masks from more “authentic” ones for dances.^[28] In a few communities, there is enough demand to have full-time mask makers, where hundreds are worn for major festivities.^[28][39] One of these is Tlaxcala because almost all dancers are masked. Many of these masks are made in the town of Apetatitlán de Antonio Carvajal by the Carlos Reyes Acoltzi family and the Mendez family of the city of Tlaxcala. Another area with a high demand for masks is Chiapa de Corzo, for the Parachicos dance performed for the feast of Saint Sebastian by thousands of dancers. The best known mask maker of this type is Antonio López, who also teaches the trade to young people.^[39] There are still cases where dancers make their own masks, such as the Cora in Nayarit and the Mayo and Yaqui in Sinaloa and Sonora. These are not generally made of wood.^[18][28] In the Cora community, dancers are bound to make their own masks as part of the rituals for Holy Week from papier-mâché, painted white and bound with cloth. On Holy Wednesday the masks are worn this way. On Maundy Thursday, black lines are added and then dyed on Good Friday.^[28]

Traditional masks are most commonly carved from wood, with various types used. The harvesting of this wood often falls under certain customs related to when and how the trees may be cut. The most common traditional wood is “zompantle,” also called “palo bofo” or “colorín” (Erythrina coralloides), a plant of the legume family which yields a soft white wood. It has been associated with ritual since pre-Hispanic times. It is often used for artistic objects, never for utilitarian items.^[40] Other common woods include red cedar and “ayacahuite” (Pinus ayacahuite), both favored for their ability to resist insect infestation. Red cedar masks are most commonly found in the Sierra de Puebla, Papantla area, Chiapa de Corzo and among the Zoques in Chiapas.^[41] Poplar wood is commonly used because it can be worked thin and does not splinter. Masks of this wood are most commonly found for the pascola dances of the Mayos and Yaquis. The hardest woods used for masks are mesquite and avocado. Mezquite masks are found in Hidalgo, Zacatecas and the northwest of the country, with avocado wood ones found in the State of Mexico. Copal wood is used mostly in Michoacán and Oaxaca but can also be found in Sonora and other states.^[42]

Other materials used for masks include wax, fired clay, leather, cloth, wire mesh, sheet metal, rubber tires, cardboard and papier-mâché.^[18][28] Masks of wax are made in the Mexico City area, which perfectly fit the wearer's face for a very realistic appearance. Other areas that use wax in this way include Villa de Zaachila, San Bartolo Coyotepec and Zapotec communities near the city of Oaxaca.^[43] These masks are made by molding the wax to the wearer's own face.^[36]

Tools used by wood mask makers include machetes, knives and blades, often fashioned by the craftsman himself. Other tools can include chisels, pliers and more, with sandpaper or pumice stone for smoothing. Sometimes the masks are covered in plaster to achieve a smooth finish.^[42] Lacquer is used on masks in some locations in Michoacán and Guerrero, where the technique is applied to a number of other items as well.^[44]

After the masks are shaped, they are painted and otherwise decorated. Facial features may be cut into or painted on the mask. Most masks are painted first with a layer of white before colors are added. Decorative paints were traditionally oil and enamel, but many mask makers have switched to acrylics and other commercial paints.^[42][44] Although details such as beards, mustaches and eyebrows can be painted or sculpted on the mask, more realistic versions use ixtle, cotton, animal hair (such as horse or sheep) and even human hair, as well as other materials.^[44] Eyes can be imitated on the mask with the use of marbles, mica, flat or curved glass (painted behind), or glass eyes. Many tiger masks have mirrors for eyes.^[38][44] Teeth can be added with the use of real ones from animals or humans, as well as metal, cactus spines, corn or reeds. If the mask has a tongue, it is often of leather or tin. Horns on devil masks are commonly made from the horns of cows, goats or deer.^[44] Finished masks often receive further decoration with ribbons, gold accents, bells, sequins and more.^[1] Often the addition of decoration is done by the dancers themselves to personalize them, especially the addition of beards and fangs. In the town of Teloloapan, Guerrero, the local government holds a contest for the best decoration of devil masks.^[37]