Military of the Bruneian Sultanate

Early history (1363–1408)

The first battle between Brunei and foreign armies was the Sarawakian Igan Valley. The Igan River flowed through this valley and was located in the traditional lands of the Melanau-speaking people. There are two accounts of the fight: the first, more legendary, tells of a nine-month struggle between three Brunei heroes and Bilanapura, a genie that Jerambak finally defeated using a miraculous fish skin he stole from an ogre. According to the second, Awang Jerambak's Brunei men came up against Basiung and his nine thousand-strong allied armies from Sambas, Matu, Sadung, and Sarikei. The Brunei army, aided by the Dayaks, overpowered Basiung's warriors despite their superior numbers; as a result, Igan was destroyed and war spoils were taken. Following this, Jerambak made Igan accept Awang Alak Betatar's dominance.^[2]

The Bruneian soldiers persisted in their conquests, subduing Igan's allies, such as Sarikei, Rajang, Sadung, Sarawak, Tanjung Datu, and Lingga, and stealing and capturing the traditionally Melanau regions of Oya, Matu, and Mukah. They penetrated all the way to Sambas, where they took control of Pontianak, Sanggau, and Sambas itself. They also expanded their dominion over Borneo to the south and southwest. They overcame Banjar (now Banjarmasin) on the east coast and took over parts of northern Borneo, albeit the latter took longer because of the dispersed towns.^[3] Awang Alak Betatar expanded the newly established Brunei territory by advancing his frontiers from the Tutong River to the Rejang river delta.^[4]

According to Chinese historical accounts, including "Nan Hai Zhi, Volume 7," Brunei ruled over nine regions in the 13th and 14th centuries, which is consistent with the Syair Awang Semaun. It describes how Awang Alak Betatar expanded his domain to include Sungai Igan and then took five more provinces from Johor on Borneo's west coast: Sarawak, Samarahan, Sadong, Mukah, and Kalaka. With the acquisition, Brunei's colonial territories became a total of fourteen, in line with reports that date back to the 10th century. Due to the influence of the Srivijaya, these provinces had slipped out of Brunei's authority, but in the middle of the 14th century, Awang Alak Betatar regained them, solidifying Brunei's historical geographical reach.^[5]

Brunei was still ruled by the Javanese, but according to "Ming Tai Zu Shi Lu, Volume 67," it confirmed its authority over 14 states. This figure is consistent with Brunei's oral traditions and corresponds with the country's 10th century geographical dominance, as documented in "Zhu Fan Zhi" (977). The myth, passed down orally, tells of a prince who, while searching for a missing spear, got married in each of the fourteen states he went to, bearing sons who were subsequently made rulers of these communities. The Chinese accounts verify Brunei's historical authority over fourteen territories, even with their mythological components.^[6]

Golden age of Brunei (1408–1770)

After Brunei officially split away from Majapahit in 1408, Sulaiman re-established the military. A junk ship from the Ming dynasty was shipwrecked^[7] containing hand cannons was found near Brunei under Bolkiah in the 15th century, Bolkiah also paid forty Javanese blacksmiths to teach metal casting in Brunei, introducing cannon casting.^[8] He later then expanded into Borneo and parts of the Philippines which included Tondo in the Tondo War, establishing Maynila.^[9] In 1521, Antonio Pigafetta reported Brunei's military had a fleet of more than one hundred boats (ships) which were involved in an attack with "a faction in the south".^[10]

The military prior to the Castilian War of 1578, was a strong army and a powerful navy. But despite this, they lost two early battles against the Spaniards,^{[citation needed]} after the Spaniards captured Kota Batu, Saiful Rijal changed to country's capital to Saragua (likely Sarawak) temporarily, later they regained their strength after the Spanish force occupying the capital greatly weakened by an outbreak of cholera and dysentery.^[11][12]

On 25 June 1578, Bruneian forces under Bendahara Sakam fought against Bruneian defectors who defected to Spain under Pengiran Seri Ratna. The Bruneian forces under Bendahara Sakam would win against Pengiran Seri Ratna who was killed in battle. Before the Spanish retreated, the Spanish burned and destroyed the city's mosque, the occupation lasting just 72 days, the Spanish would later returned to Manila on 26 June.^{[citation needed]}

During Muhammad Hasan's reign, Muhammad Hasan commanded the attack on the Melanau in Sarawak,^[13] to be carried out by Pehin Orang Kaya Di-Gadong Seri Lela.^[14] After the Bruneian troops put an end to the uprising, the Melanau returned to Brunei and submitted.^[13]

It has been suggested that the insurrection of the Lun Bawangs and Chinese had led to the Sultan of Brunei requesting assistance from the Sulu to suppress the rebellion in 1658, which resulted in the Brunei Sultan ceding his territory of Kimanis until Tapean Durian to the Sultan of Sulu as a sign of gratitude.^[15] However it was likely taken back after the Apostate War.

In 1660, the Bruneian Civil War would start and split into two forces: Abdul Hakkul Mubin and Muhyiddin. During the course of the war, Muhyiddin was concerned that the civil war was dragging on for too long and asked the help of the Sultan of Sulu to send for his forces. He reportedly promised the land of eastern Sabah as a reward for the latter's assistance.^[16] During the civil war, Abdul Hakkul Mubin fled to Kinarut (in present-day Papar, Sabah, Malaysia) where, he stayed there for ten years, repelling repeated attacks by Sultan Muhyiddin.^[16] They returned to Brunei after a final attack by Muhyiddin's forces in which they failed to defeat Abdul Hakkul Mubin.^[16] Eventually, Muhyiddin finally defeated Abdul Hakkul Mubin in Cermin Island, after the purchasing of gunpowder,^[17] which came from Jambi.

The Sulu army was supposed to help Muhyiddin forces in Cermin Island, but when they arrived the Sulu army in their ships arrived just to watch Muhyiddin forces fight Abdul Hakkul Mubin forces instead of helping the Muhyiddin forces, they landed after the battle to take war booty and to enslaved prisoners. This would infuriated Muhyiddin, who ordered the Sulu army to leave without giving eastern Sabah to them. Brunei denied giving eastern Sabah to the Sulu Sultanate claiming there was no written evidence of the transfer,^[18] the civil war ended in 1673.

Struggle for Survival (1770–1870)

Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin learned about the situation in Manila of the Philippines, due to it being Bruneian territory, he was not pleased. As a result, he gave command to attack Sultan Alimuddin in Manila with his forces under the command of Pehin Orang Kaya Di-Gadong Seri Lela Awang Aliwaddin in 1769.^[19] The mission didn't arrive in Manila until 1769 because the expedition's preparations took so long. Sultan Alimuddin had already departed Manila for Sulu, therefore Manila was under Spanish rule when the siege began.^[20] The siege would go on to be a success as Manila was captured by the Brunei sultanate.^[21]

The conflict over North Borneo, also known as Sabah, began after which a promise made by Sultan Muhyiddin to the Sultan of Sulu after Sulu helped him win the civil war that went in his favor. Sulu attacked Brunei in 1771 after he had become severely weakened. Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin signed a deal with the British Empire in June 1774 to secure outside support. The British were looking for a storehouse along the way to Canton and received exclusive rights to the pepper trade in exchange for their military assistance.^[22] When Sulu despatch a force under the command of Datu Teting to attack Balambangan in 1775, its leaders sought safety in Labuan after the British quickly established a presence in Brunei.^[22] When the two forces clashed, Datu Teting surrendered and his troops fled back to Sulu after learning that the warriors of Brunei, led by Pengiran Temenggong Ampa, were far too strong for them to defeat.^[23][24] Thomas Forrest visited Brunei in February 1776.^[19] Despite Labuan's offer, the British left Brunei in 1777 due to the financial collapse of Balambangan, losing the entire East India Company.^[22][25]

In 1788, a Sulu army attacked Kampong Sembulan as an attempt to invade Brunei. They were defeated by Embo Amir who later became the caretaker of Kampong Sembulan.^[26]

In 1826, the Bruneian Civil War would start all over again into two forces: Omar Ali Saifuddin II and Muhammad Alam. With Omar setting his capital in Kampong Burong Pingai and Muhammad Alam setting his at Chermin Island. The civil war would end in 1828 when Muhammad Alam was assassinated by assassins sent by Raja Isteri Nooralam, the mother of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien II and the half-sister of Muhammad Alam.^[27]

In 1828, around the Brunei Bay and its surrounding area, the Bruneian navy and local flotillas attempted to intercept a major slave raiding party mostly succeeded as the Iranun fled to not risk high casualties.^[28][29]

The power of the army was weakening due to many factors such as Moro pirates constantly raiding the Bornean coast and the Sea Dayak raids on the river made it difficult for Brunei to properly centralise the empire.^[30]

The army was heavily weakened due to pirates, rebellion and constant infighting between Bruneian nobles and culminating in the upcoming uprising in Sarawak.^[30][31][32] Worsening this was the Sultan making a great political error in appointing Brooke as Rajah of Sarawak in 1841.^[33]

At first James stayed loyal to the agreement, he fought pirates^[34] and stabilised Sarawak however Brooke declared independence from Brunei in 1843, starting the Anglo-Bruneian War which was a British tactical victory however the Sultan succeeded in the long run as he eliminated dangerous political figures such as Pengiran Muda Hashim, Badruddin and Datu Patinggi Ali whose deaths made their power decline.^[35]

Fall (1870–1906)

In 1884, the tulin region of Limbang rebelled against Pengiran Temenggong Hashim.^[36] The rebellion was the response of decades of Bruneian oppression, which started when the government imposed heavy taxes to the indigenous residents of Limbang in the 1850s, starting a series of revolts between the 1850s to 1860s.^[37]

The 1884 rebellion start when the Bisaya and Muruts refused to pay the high taxes collected by agents of Pengiran Temenggung Hashim.^[38][39] The first violence occurred when the residents killed two of the Sultan's tax agents in the Limbang district.^[40]

In retaliation, on 3 September, 1884, the Bruneian army lead by Hashim and Laksamana Tarip to battle the rebels, however the battle ended in a retreating defeat for Brunei, forcing them to flee, the rebels, chasing them out of Limbang.^[41]

With attacks on villages near the capital, Brunei Town. On October 1884, the nation was placed under high alert. Even Sultan Abdul Momin himself borrowed firearms from Labuan to strengthen his palace’s security.^[37]

However, William Hood Treacher eventually helped to make a treaty between Brunei and the Limbang rebels, albeit with ulterior motives on behalf of the British North Borneo Company to prevent Charles from taking Limbang from them.^[37]

The shrinking territories led to Abdul Momin, realising his nation would become extinct if they kept ceding territories, declared the "Amanat"^[42] which was an oath between the Sultan, Wazirs, Manteris, and holders of Tulin rights not to cede or lease any remaining territories to the foreign powers^[43][44] and which was signed on 20 February 1885.^[45] However this oath was immediately broken by Pengiran Temenggong Hashim when he carelessly ceded Terusan and Limbang.

In 1888, another war started in Padas Damit between the said British North Borneo Company and Pengiran Shabandhar Bessar Mohd Salleh Panglima Hassan alongside other rebels such as Dang Insum and et cetera.

On 10 December 1888, British forces led by Governor Creagh launched their first major attack. They focused on this central fort, Kota Padas Damit to break the command of Pengiran Syahbandar Hassan. The fort was bombarded and captured early in the campaign, though Pengiran Syahbandar did not surrender.^[46]

In January 1889, after the fall of Kota Padas Damit, the British moved toward Kota Makarang, a fortified town along the Padas River. The Constabulary, with a force of 200 strong, fired on the city repeatedly with cannon beginning January 1889.^[47] Despite heavy resistance, the fort was destroyed by artillery fire.^[48][46] Dang Isum was killed on 10 March 1889, while fighting to defend the city.^[49]

On March until April 1889, Kota Galila fell as the British forces systematically cleared the Padas riverbanks in the months following the capture of Makarang.^[46]

In May 1889 was the final stronghold. Its strong construction and reputation for having a "magical" white cloth barrier made it the most difficult to take, marking the end of the war and the surrender of the resistance.^[48] The next day, the Company brought Pengiran Syahbandar to negotiate a peace agreement by setting several conditions, including that a criminal named Patek be handed over to the police and that Sungai Tulin Padas Damit be handed over to the company with an annual payment.^[50][51][52]

In 1888, The Protectorate Agreement of Brunei was officially signed by the Sultan of Brunei of that time, Sultan Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin and the British Resident of Perak, Hugh Low.^[53] It was witnessed by Dato Temenggong Kim Swee and L.H Wise.^[53] It was signed at Sultan Hashim's palace in "the city of Brunei",^[53] present day Kampong Ayer. The treaty marked the end of the Sultanate of Brunei and the beginning of British Protectorate Brunei.^[54] However even with this, Limbang was fully annexed by Sarawak by Charles Brooke on 17th March 1890.^[55]

Between 1899 and 1901, another rebellion started in Tutong and Belait when the Pengiran Bendahara at time, attempted to collect three years' worth of back-taxes from the Belait district. In response, local residents killed the tax collectors. By 1901, the situation escalated with reports of an attack on Tutong by roughly 500 men. This force represented nearly the entire adult male population of the district at the time. The leadership of the uprising was also controversial with Dato Di-Gadong, one of the central figures, being recorded as having killed three men in 1899 and shooting several people in 1901 for refusing to join his cause.^[56]

In July 1901, violence broke out in Birau, where four people were murdered and approximately 100 families were robbed and forced to flee to nearby Sarawak. The rebellion caused widespread instability, with roughly 200 families crossing the border into the Limbang district for safety during 1901 alone.^[56]

This old style of military is still alive today through the country's traditional palace guards called "awang-awang", recorded in 1735 which the term would later evolve to become the modern "awang" by 1961.^[57][58]

Arms

In the early history of the empire, they were armed with traditional weapons.^{[72][full citation needed]}, used during the early Bruneian conquest during the reign of Awang Alak Betatar, said weapons usually included: spears, keris^[73], bows and arrows and the taming.^[74] However later into the life of the sultanate, the pisau pedang^[f], chenangkas^[75], kampilan^[75][76] and the kelasak^[75] were used by Brunei forces after the 16th century.

Until at least the reign of Bolkiah ibni Sulaiman, when Antonio Pigafetta found muskets being produced in the island of Palawan which was under Bruneian rule.^[77] It is not exactly known who introduced guns which could possibly be the Sultanate of Gowa or Malay states in Sumatra and the Malay peninsula, either way, Bruneian blacksmiths began producing muskets of their own soon after obtaining it from merchants.^[78][79]

The first ever flintlock muskets began to be used with the arrival of the Dutch East India Company in modern day, Indonesia and Malacca.^[80] Malays depended on European powers for flintlock compenents, as no local metalsmiths were capable of producing such complex components, forcing them to resort to buying flintlock mechanism from Europeans. Flintlock firearms were different weapons as they were known as senapang, derived from the Dutch word snaphaan.

In the gun-making regions of Brunei, these senapan could be produced locally, with the barrel and wooden components crafted in the Malay world, dragon pistols called tarkul and pemuras were also used during this time.^{[81][82][83][84][85]} Bamboo and rattan barrel covering on top of their senapang were also used by in order to keep them dry in wet weather.^[86][87] Firearms were also later spread to the indigenous Dayaks, which alongside cannons, would be used on their boats especially the bangkong.^[88][89]

Artillery

The usage of artillery is very well known, Bolkiah started to use artillery when he paid forty Javanese blacksmiths to teach metal casting, introducing cannon technology to Brunei.^[90] With most cannons were made of bronze or brass^[91][92] and the earliest ones were breechloaders.^[93] Michael Charney (2004) pointed out that early Malay swivel guns were breech-loaded.^[94]

In 1600 CE, lela cannons were becoming more common in the archipelago. Several renowned foundries of the Malay World were Terengganu in the Malay Peninsula and Brunei and Banjarmasin in Borneo.

Brunei was known for its foundries in the 19th century. Brass was the preferred metal as it was cheaper and easier to work compared to the related but harder alloy bronze, or iron. However, bronze is much stronger and was therefore more popular for use in making weapons.^[95] The process used was cire perdue using terracotta and a wax mould.^[96][95] There was later a trend toward muzzle-loading weapons during colonial era.^[97]

Ships

The Sultan of Brunei maintained naval forces, employing both sailors and privateers especially the Sama-Bajau^{[98][99][100][101]} and would often perform slave raiding often against non-Muslims such as animist and Christians.^[102]

Also according to a legend, before Muhammad Shah converted to Islam and became the Sultan of Brunei, he was a legendary pirate lord. Brunei continued to maintain a de-centralized navy by the 1840s.^[103]

Most seafearers depending on their background would often use penjajap, kumpit,^[98] kakap,^[104] apilan and kota mara proas and bangkong; which was only used in riverine warfare. The penjajap were the more preferred ship by Malays and the bangkong was primarily used by Dayak Iban pirates which were usually outfitted Lela or Lantaka on their ships, as most Bornean ships was fast, able to almost encircle an armada of exactly 40 Spanish galleons in the Castilian War^[105] and to bombard enemy settlements.^[106] Most Bruneian ships flew either a pennon or swallowtail variant of the Bruneian flag; depending on the ship.

Piracy was also secretly encouraged by native rulers who usually wanted a share of the spoil and also by the Malays who knew well how to handle a boat. The Malay fleet consisted of a large number of boats, each boat was paddled by from 60 to 80 men. These boats skulked about in the sheltered coves waiting for their prey, and attacked merchant vessels making the passage in the South China Sea and the Strait of Malacca. The Malays and their Dayak allies would wreck and destroy every trading vessel they came across, murder most of the crew who resisted them, and the rest were made as slaves. The Dayak would cut off the heads of those who were slain, smoke them over the fire to dry them, and then take them home to treasure as valued possessions.^[107]

Attire

Before the arrival of Islam to Borneo, they dressed similarly to their animistic or Hindu-Buddhist counterparts as they were under their suzerainty,^[4] after their conversion to Islam under Muhammad Shah, they began to copy the clothing of the Malaccan Sultanate of Iskandar Shah in 15th century.^[3]

John Hunt described Malay clothing of the early 19th century to Stamford Raffles as:^[108]

“The Malays are never without their weapons, which they wear habitually, even in times of peace. Their dress is light and simple, suited to the climate and their active habits. In war they rely more on agility and personal courage than on defensive armour.”

This is supported by Henry Keppel when says:^[110]

"Clad in light garments, with kris and sword worn in the girdle, and perfectly unembarrassed in their movements."

According to Francisco de Sande, they also used mostly wooden but also sometimes iron helmets as well.^[76]

"The people are very warlike... they carry pikes and certain large swords which they use with both hands... and they have helmets of wood and some of iron...and they handle them with much skill"

The Bruneian elites also used two or more kerises to signify power and prestige according the James Brooke during the Sarawak Uprising of 1836.^[32] Many princes and their retainers and retinue also had brass helmets and chainmail, mostly of the baju lamina and kechubong helmet variety.^{[112][113][114][32]} Despite Brooke criticising the government of Brunei, he praised their craftsmanship:

"The Pangerans and their followers were fully equipped with chain-armour and brass helmets; and their krisses, of which each person wore two or three, were of the most beautiful workmanship."