Panjal Traps

Late Carboniferous to Early Permian deposits of Tethyan affinity in the Zanskar-Spiti area are mostly terrigenous, detrital sedimentary rocks, although some magmatic activity documented in Pakistan and central Nepal has been associated with this period. These sedimentary layers are associated with the erosion that followed the uplift of the margins of the newly rifted Indian continent. In the eastern and central Himalayas more voluminous volcanic eruptions have been documented from the same period. The Abor volcanics produced 1,500 m (4,900 ft) of basaltic to andesitic flows and tuffs. In the Late Permian (Sakmarian-Roadian) the theoliitic Nar-Tsum(?) produced 300 metres (980 ft) of spilites and Bhote Kosi basalts in southern Tibet.^[2]

The slightly younger (Artinskian-Kazanian) Panjal Traps produced the largest magmatic province in north-western India. Its lava flows now covers 10⁵ km², from the eastern Zanskar-Spliti-Lahaul area to north-eastern Pakistan and they filled a rifted valley called the Zanskar-Spiti synclinorium.^[2] The original extent of the Panjal Traps may have exceeded 0.2 million km², a distribution similar to those of the Emeishan LIP in south-western China and the Columbia River basalts in north-western United States.^[6] In Ladakh and in the Kashmir Basin the flows are 2,500 m (8,200 ft) thick with a smaller amount of pyroclastics overlain by aphyric basaltic flows. In north-eastern Pakistan the Panjal flows are exposed as dykes cross-cutting the basement and Early Paleozoic layers, and as inter-layered magmatic flows on Late Plaeozoic to Early Mesozoic layers with Tethyan affinity.^[2]

The eruption of the Panjal Traps was followed (Kazanian-Djulfian) by the emplacement of a succession of sediments, the result of the progressive thermo-tectonic subsidence of the Indian passive margin associated with the expanding Neo-Tethys.^[2]

The Panjal Traps have been associated with either the Mid-Capitanian (260 Ma) or End-Permian (251 Ma) mass extinction events. Analyses of zircon crystals have, however, yielded an ²⁰⁶U/²³⁸Pb age of 289±2 Ma — considerably older than these mass extinctions.^[5] The Panjal Traps can, nevertheless, be linked to the African large low-shear-velocity province (or superplume) and, as such, is most likely responsible for the widespread flood basalts in the Himalayas, but the Siberian Traps (251 Ma) are probably a better candidate for these younger mass extinctions.^[7]

Late Carboniferous-Permian LIPs (such as Jutland, Panjal, Tarim, Emeishan and Siberia) were emplaced before the break-up of Pangaea whereas the post-Permian LIPs were involved in the break-up of the supercontinent. Mantle plume-derived LIPs share features such as large-volume flood basalts, short duration, uplift and doming of the crust before eruption, and high temperature-melts such as komatiites and picrites.^[4] The chemical and isotopic composition of samples of basalt taken from the eastern Kashmir Valley are similar to within-plate basalts, and probably derived from a spinel peridotite source. Samples taken from the western side of the valley are more primitive, derived from a more depleted source. This suggests that Panjal made a transition from a newly formed continental setting, where the basalt composition was 'enriched OIB-like', to an old ocean basin, where the composition was 'depleted MORB-like'. Chemically, the Panjal basalts are similar to those from post-Permian/post-Pangaean LIPs.^[8]

Paleomagnetic data from the Kashmir Valley indicate the Panjal eruption occurred at a paleolatitude of c. 33° (±5°)S.^[9]