Spanish Filipinos

Ethnic group From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Spanish Filipino or Hispanic Filipino (Spanish: Español Filipino, Hispano Filipino, Tagalog: Kastílang Pilipino, Cebuano: Katsílà) are people of Spanish and Filipino heritage. The term includes all individuals of Spanish descent in the Philippines, including criollos and mestizos who identify with Spanish culture, history and language.[20]

Spain200,000[12] (2018 census)
Mexico200,000[9] (2007)
Australia128,693[13] (2021 census)
United States0.4%[14] (2021 census)
Quick facts Total population, Regions with significant populations ...
Spanish Filipinos
Hispano Filipinos
Total population
History
Spanish colonial statistics:
5% of the Philippine population during the 1700s.[1][2]

Present
2007-2024 statistics:
672,319 Hispanic Filipino diaspora[3][4] worldwide.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11]
Regions with significant populations
Diaspora
 Spain200,000[12] (2018 census)
 Mexico200,000[9] (2007)
 Australia128,693[13] (2021 census)
 United States0.4%[14] (2021 census)
 Puerto Rico91,620[15] (2014 census)
 Canada41,575[16] (2021 census)
Latin America5,479[17][18] (2024 census)
 Philippines4,952[19] (2020 census)
Languages
Spanish (Philippine • Castilian)
Spanish creole (Chavacano)
English (Philippine, (Konyo))
Filipino (Tagalog • Indigenous Philippine languages)
Religion
Christianity • Roman Catholic
Related ethnic groups
Spanish diaspora (Basque diaspora) • Latin Americans • other Filipinos (including Filipino Mestizos)
Close
Quick facts Regions with significant populations, Languages ...
Spanish diaspora
Flag of the Hispanic people
Regions with significant populations
Metro Manila, Bais City, Dumaguete City, Zamboanga City, Cebu City, Vigan, Iloilo City, Bauang
Languages
Spanish (Philippine), Filipino, other Philippine languages, English (Konyo) and Chavacano
Religion
Roman Catholic
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According to the 2020 Philippine census, 4,952 individual citizens self-identified as ethnically Spanish[21] in the Philippines.

Forming a small part of the Spanish diaspora,[20] the heritage of Spanish Filipinos may come recently from Spain, from descendants of the earlier Spanish settlers during the Spanish colonial period in the Philippines, or from Spain's viceroyalties in Hispanic America, such as Mexico, whose capital Mexico City held administrative power over the captaincy general of the Philippines in the colonial era.

Many of their communities in Spain, the Americas, Australia, and the Philippines trace their origin to the early settlers from Europe and Mexico during the Spanish colonial period as well as native populations of Southeast Asia, and in recent overseas migration in the 1900s.

In the Philippines depending on the specific provinces, in the late 1700s to early 1800s they formed as much as 19% in the capital city of Manila at formerly named Tondo province,[1]: 539  and about 1.38% of the Ilocos region,[2]: 31  2.17% of Cebu[2]: 113  or 16.72% of Bataan[1]: 539  and other parts of the country.

It is a common misconception that the word "Filipino" only referred to the Spanish population that settled in the Philippines during the colonial period. But in his book Barangay, the American historian William Henry Scott wrote that, though the Spaniards called the natives of the islands they named Filipinas, indios, ". . . when it was necessary to distinguish the indios of the Philippines from those of the Americas, they were called Filipinos. So Pedro Chirino’s 1604 Relación has a chapter on “The food and terms of course and food manners of the Filipinos” (Chirino 1604, 36), and Juan Francisco de San Antonio devotes a chapter of his 1738 Crónicas to “The letters, languages, and politeness of the Philipinos” (San Antonio 1738, 140), . . . In short, the people of the Philippines were called Filipinos when they were practicing their own culture — or, to put it another way, before they became indios”. He later on explains the misconception: “In the nineteenth century, Spaniards born in the colony began to be called Españoles filipinos to distinguish them from Spaniards born in Spain, a designation which was logically contracted to Filipinos when speaking of Spaniards. . . Sinibaldo de Mas (1843, 138) in his 1842 population estimates, more neutrally divides Spaniards and Filipinos into the following categories — Filipinos (indios), Espanoles filipinos, and Españoles europeos. “Indio filipino” was just how Francisco Suárez signed himself a century before when he engraved a portrait of Philip V for Pedro Murillo Velarde’s 1743 Cusus Juris Canonici (frontispiece), and native Filipinos were still using the term in the next century. As Jose Rizal (1887,111) said of the Philippine community in Madrid, “Creoles, Mestizos and Malays, we simply call ourselves Filipinos.”[22] Furthermore, a manuscript prepared by Filipinas Royal Commissioner Don Sinibaldo de Mas, which was published in Madrid in 1843, referred to the natives as ‘filipinos’ who "originated in Borneo" and "believed in a powerful God they called Bathala Maykapal". de Mas furthermore iterated that the Spaniards "improperly" called the natives indios/Indians, and that there were many inhabitants in the islands who "passed as Filipinos and paid tribute", though they had European ancestry. [23]

[24][25] Spaniards, Latin Americans and Spanish-speaking Filipinos were referred to by native Filipinos as "Kastila", a word for "Castilian" which means the region and language of Castile.

Filipinos of Spanish backgrounds numbered at about 4,952 people, while Mestizo Filipinos of mixed native Filipino and European ancestry made up about 5% of the Philippines' population during the 1700s.[1][2]

The abrupt decline of Spanish Filipinos as a percentage of the population is due to the events of the Philippine Revolution during the Philippine Republic in the late 1800s, as Filipinos of Spanish heritage choose to identify themselves as native Filipino, as part of establishing a united national identity in the country,[26] or some have relocated back to Spain, or have migrated to other countries during that period.[27]

During and after the second phase of the Philippine Revolution, the term "Filipino" included people of all nationalities and race, born in the Philippines.[28][29][30]

Today, Hispanic Filipinos are found in all social classes worldwide, from upper wealthy to lower poor disadvantage backgrounds, and from high profiled individuals to ordinary unknown people. They have long integrated into the native communities living their lives as ordinary citizens. However most of the successful individuals are present in economics and business sectors in the Philippines and a few sources estimate companies which comprise a significant portion of the Philippine economy like Ynchausti y Compañia, MBC Media Group, Ayala Corporation (Ayala Land, Bank of the Philippine Islands, Globe Telecom, Integrated Micro-Electronics, Inc.,), Aboitiz & Company, (Aboitiz Power, Union Bank of the Philippines), ANSCOR (Amanpulo), Razon & Co. Inc. (International Container Terminal Services Inc., Manila Water, Solaire Resort & Casino, Apex Mining Co., Inc.)[31] and Central Azucarera de La Carlota, to name but a few are owned by Hispanic Filipinos.[32][33][34][35][36]

History

Main articles: History of Spain, History of Latin America, History of the Americas, and History of the Philippines (1521–1898)
A "Criollo (Insular)" woman in Hispanized Philippine dress (ca. 1890s)

The history of the Spanish Philippines covers the period from 1521 to 1898, beginning with the arrival in 1521 of the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailing for Spain, which heralded the period when the Philippines was an overseas province of Spain, and ends with the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in 1898.

The Spanish discovery of the American continent by the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus in 1492, an expedition sponsored by Queen Isabella I of Castille and King Ferdinand II of Aragon,[37] laid the foundation of settlements and explorations in the New World.[38] Spain became the first European country to permanently colonized the American continent in 1492.[39]

In 1541, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos was commissioned by Antonio de Mendoza, the viceroy of New Spain and first colonial administrator in the New World, to send an expedition to the Philippines to establish a larger Spanish presence there as a base for trade with the Spice Islands and China and to extend Spanish control over the Moluccas in the Portuguese East Indies.[40] The expedition ultimately failed, with Villalobos dying in a Portuguese prison on Ambon Island in 1546.

In 1564, conquistadors led by Miguel López de Legazpi, prompted the colonization of the Philippine Islands that lasted for 333 years. The Philippines was a former territory of New Spain until the grant of independence to Mexico in 1821 necessitated the direct government from Spain of the Philippines from that year. Early Spanish settlers to the Philippines were mostly explorers, soldiers, government officials, religious missionaries, and among others, who were born in Spain or in Mexico called "Peninsulares" (Spanish migrants living in the colony). Their succeeding generation known as "Criollos" (Spaniards of pure White blood, born and raised in the colony) contributed to the population's development.[41]

"Mestizo" family

For centuries several hundreds of Spaniards settled in the islands along with their families to start a new beginning in the New World, to take advantage of the rich and exotic resources the colony had to offer. Some of these individuals married or inter-bred with the indigenous Filipino population while most married only other Spaniards. Their descendants consisting of "Criollos" or "Insulares" and "Mestizos" (those of "mixed-blood" individuals) became part of the island's indigenous society; some became town officers and farmers, and others became ordinary citizens.

Government officials and those of high ranks were granted with haciendas (plantation estates) by the Spanish government. In some provinces like, Vigan, Iloilo, Cebu, Pampanga, and Zamboanga, The Spanish government encouraged foreign merchants from Southeast Asia and the Asian continent to trade in the colony, along with the European and indigenous population, but they were not given certain privileges such as ownership of land.

Contacts with Europeans, social intercourse between foreign merchants, and indigenous people resulted in a new ethnic group. These groups were called Mestizos (mixed-race individuals), who were born from intermarriages from European Spaniards and indigenous Austronesian-speaking Filipino natives. Some of their descendants emerged later as an influential part of the ruling class called the "Principalía" (Nobility) class.

The Spanish implemented incentives to deliberately entangle the various races together in order to stop rebellions.[42][43][44] According to a historical colonial conversation that was published, stated by a government official explains: "It is needful to encourage public instruction in all ways possible, permit newspapers subject to a liberal censure, to establish in Manila a college of medicine, surgery, and pharmacy: in order to break down the barriers that divide the races, and amalgamate them all into one. For that purpose, the Spaniards of the country, the Chinese mestizos, and the Filipinos shall be admitted with perfect equality as cadets of the military corps; the personal-service tax shall be abolished, or an equal and general tax shall be imposed, to which all the Spaniards shall be subject. This last plan appears to me more advisable, as the poll-tax is already established, and it is not opportune to make a trial of new taxes when it is a question of allowing the country to be governed by itself. Since the annual tribute is unequal, the average shall be taken and shall be fixed, consequently, at fifteen or sixteen reals per whole tribute, or perhaps one peso fuerte annually from each adult tributary person. This regulation will produce an increase in the revenue of 200,000 or 300,000 pesos fuertes, and this sum shall be set aside to give the impulse for the amalgamation of the races, favoring crossed marriages by means of dowries granted to the single women in the following manner. To a Chinese mestizo woman who marries a Filipino shall be given 100 pesos; to a Filipino woman who marries a Chinese mestizo, 100 pesos; to a Chinese mestizo woman who marries a Spaniard, 1,000 pesos; to a Spanish woman who marries a Chinese mestizo, 2,000 pesos; to a Filipino woman who marries a Spaniard, 2,000 pesos; to a Spanish woman who marries a Filipino chief, 3,000 or 4,000 pesos. Some mestizo and Filipino alcaldes-mayor of the provinces shall be appointed. It shall be ordered that when a Filipino chief goes to the house of a Spaniard, he shall seat himself as the latter's equal. In a word, by these and other means, the idea that they and the Castilians are two kinds of distinct races shall be erased from the minds of the natives, and the families shall become related by marriage in such manner that when free of the Castilian dominion should any exalted Filipinos try to expel or enslave our race, they would find it so interlaced with their own that their plan would be practically impossible".[45]

Filipinos and other Asians were brought to Mexico as slaves and servants, while some Africans were brought to the Philippines by the Portuguese traders, to work on plantation settlements as slave workers or settlers working in the colony.[46][47] Between 1565 and 1815, both Filipinos and people from Latin America and Spain sailed to, and from the Philippines in the Manila galleon trade to Acapulco, assisting Spain in its trade on the colony.

Population

Main articles: Demographics of Spain, Demographics of Latin America, and Demographics of the Philippines
Hispanic Indigenous Filipinos in Cabildo Street, inside the walled city of Intramuros, Manila in 1890.

Colonial statistics

Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga Census

In the late 1700s to early 1800s, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, an Agustinian Friar from Spain, in his Two Volume Book: "Estadismo de las islas Filipinas"[1][2] compiled a census of the Spanish-Philippines based on the tribute counts (Which represented an average family of seven to ten children[48] and two parents, per tribute)[49] and came upon the following statistics:

More information Province, Native Tributes ...
Data reported for the 1800 as divided by ethnicity and province[1][2]
Province Native Tributes Spanish Mestizo Tributes All Tributes[a]
Tondo[1]: 539  14,537-1/2 3,528 27,897-7
Cavite[1]: 539  5,724-1/2 859 9,132-4
Laguna[1]: 539  14,392-1/2 336 19,448-6
Batangas[1]: 539  15,014 451 21,579-7
Mindoro[1]: 539  3,165 3-1/2 4,000-8
Bulacan[1]: 539  16,586-1/2 2,007 25,760-5
Pampanga[1]: 539  16,604-1/2 2,641 27,358-1
Bataan[1]: 539  3,082 619 5,433
Zambales[1]: 539  1,136 73 4,389
Ilocos[2]: 31  44,852-1/2 631 68,856
Pangasinan[2]: 31  19,836 719-1/2 25,366
Cagayan[2]: 31  9,888 0 11,244-6
Camarines[2]: 54  19,686-1/2 154-1/2 24,994
Albay[2]: 54  12,339 146 16,093
Tayabas[2]: 54  7,396 12 9,228
Cebu[2]: 113  28,112-1/2 625 28,863
Samar[2]: 113  3,042 103 4,060
Leyte[2]: 113  7,678 37-1/2 10,011
Caraga[2]: 113  3,497 0 4,977
Misamis[2]: 113  1,278 0 1,674
Negros Island[2]: 113  5,741 0 7,176
Iloilo[2]: 113  29,723 166 37,760
Capiz[2]: 113  11,459 89 14,867
Antique[2]: 113  9,228 0 11,620
Calamianes[2]: 113  2,289 0 3,161
TOTAL 299,049 13,201 424,992-16
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The Spanish-Filipino population as a proportion of the provinces widely varied; with as high as 19% of the population of Tondo province[1]: 539  (The most populous province and former name of Manila), to Pampanga 13.7%,[1]: 539  Cavite at 13%,[1]: 539  Laguna 2.28%,[1]: 539  Batangas 3%,[1]: 539  Bulacan 10.79%,[1]: 539  Bataan 16.72%,[1]: 539  Ilocos 1.38%,[2]: 31  Pangasinan 3.49%,[2]: 31  Albay 1.16%,[2]: 54  Cebu 2.17%,[2]: 113  Samar 3.27%,[2]: 113  Iloilo 1%,[2]: 113  Capiz 1%,[2]: 113  Bicol 20%,[50] and Zamboanga 40%.[50] According to the 1893 data in the Archdiocese of Manila which administers much of Luzon under it, about 10% of the population was then Spanish-Filipino.[1]: 539  Overall the whole Philippines, even including the provinces with no Spanish settlement, as summed up,[b] the average percentage of Spanish Filipino tributes amount to an estimated 5% of the total population.[1][2]

Manuel Buzeta and Felipe Bravo Census

The previously cited census record, summing up the tributes from the late 1700s, is also corroborated by another census finished in year 1818, also headed by clergy, this time by the two Priest-Scientists, Fr. Manuel Buzeta and Fr. Felipe Bravo, concluded that there were 1,522,221 souls represented by 312,251 tributes or families across the islands.[51]: 55  Within which; 400 tributes representing the pure Spanish showing the same number of pure Spanish families; 8,584 Spanish-mestizo tributes representing the same number of Spanish-mestizo families;[51]: 55  and 9,901 Chinese-mestizo tributes representing the same number of Chinese-mestizo families.[51]: 55  If calculating for the family size of a tribute which is 1 tribute to 9 persons in a family. "1:9" (1 Father and 8 Children as per the average number of children in the census, and disregarding the race of the mother that legally follows that of the husband upon marriage)[48] 8,584 Spanish-mestizo tributes plus 400 pure Spanish tributes sum up to 8,984 Spanish-blooded tributes and when multiplied by 9 result to 71,872 Spanish-blooded citizens which is about 4.72% of the 1,522,221 living in the Spanish-Philippines, similar to 5% ratio stated in the earlier census by Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga.[1][2]

As outlined below are the primary statistics of the said census.

[Click "Expand" to view the Compiled Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (1818)]
More information Provinces, Pueblos ...
Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Albay, 1818)[52]: 603 
Provinces Pueblos Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Negrito Families Chinese Filipino Families
Albay Albay, Cabicera 5,515 2 2
Manito 240 4
Bacon 2,119 45
Cuba 2,162 52
Casiguran 1,025 28
Juban 396 18
Sorsogon 1,783 149
Bulusan 1,777 19
Bulan 714 16
Donsol 241
Quipia 269
Lilog 821 33 23
Bacacay 1,295 77
Malilipot 981 53
Tabaco 3,347 225
Malitao 2,844 241
Tibi 2,069 157 110
Lagonoy y su anejo 1,669 18 521
San Jose 1,829 114 470
Caramoan 641 72
Total 31,737 1,249 1,198 2
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More information Provinces, Pueblos ...
Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Isla De Ticao, 1818)[52]: 603 
Provinces Pueblos Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Negrito Families Chinese Filipino Families
Isla de Ticao San Jacinto 266 8
Total 266 8
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More information Provinces, Pueblos ...
Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Isla De Masbate, 1818)[52]: 603 
Provinces Pueblos Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Negrito Families Chinese Filipino Families
Isla de Masbate Mobo 912 1
Total 912 1
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More information Provinces, Pueblos ...
Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Isla De Catanduanes, 1818)[52]: 603 
Provinces Pueblos Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Negrito Families Chinese Filipino Families
Isla De Catanduanes Virac 1,581 91
Calolbon 847 3
Eiga 847 3
Payo y sus anejos Bagamanoc y Ooc 644 17
Pandan y Caramoan 489 2
Total 4,408 116
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More information Provinces, Pueblos ...
Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Antique, 1818)[51]: 302 
Provinces Pueblos Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Chinese Filipino Families
Antique San José de Buenavista, cabecera 5,925 6
San Pedro de Balbalan 2,247
Sibalom 4,665 2
Patnongon y su visita Coritan 2,097 3
Bugason 3,060 1
San Antonio de Nalupa, su anejo Culari y visitas Tibiao, Bitad, Tun, Bacafan y Batunan 2,542 19
Pandan 300
Antique 2,304 12
Dao 1,296 7
Cagayan Chico en la isla del mismo nombre 527
Total (Across the Province) 24,963 50 40
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More information Provinces, Pueblos ...
Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Bataan, 1818)[51]: 357 
Provinces Pueblos Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Moreno Filipino Families Negro (Black) Filipino Families Chinese Filipino Families
Bataan Balanga, cabecera 1,608 12 18 8
Abucay 1,406 20 3 5
Samar 1,000 4 1
Orani 1,000 25 8
Llana-Hermosa 716 1
San Juan de Dinalupijan 451 19 7 3
Pilar 899
Mariveles y su visita Morong 1,522 3 1 5
Orion ú Odiong 1,550 8 2 18 3
Total 10,152 92 3 52 27
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More information Provinces, Pueblos ...
Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Batangas, 1818)[52]: 394 
Provinces Pueblos Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Chinese Filipino Families
Batangas Balayan, cabecera. 4,521 22
Lian. 629 7
Nasugbů. 866 2
Rosario 1,758 4
Santo Tomas. 1,256
San Pablo de los Montes 1,948 7
Taal 8,312
Baoan ó Banang 5,813
Batangas 6,889
San José 2,427
Tanauan. 2,106
Lipa 4,104
Total 40,629 40 2
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More information Provinces, Pueblos ...
Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Bulacan, 1818)[51]: 414 
Provinces Pueblos Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Converted Negro Families Chinese Filipino Families
Bulacan Bulacan, cabecera. 5,200
Bigáa. 1,876
Guiguinto. 1,291
Malolos. 8,110
Paombon. 1,058
Hagonoy. 4,572
Calumpít. 2,628
Quingua. 2,912
San Isidro. 2,560
Baliuag. 4,296
San Rafael. 1,650 10
Angat. 5,441
San José. 219
Santa María de Pandi. 1,588 17
Bocaue. 2,550 88 2
Marilao. 881 28 5 1
Meycauayan. 2,375 46
Polo. 3,160 44 4
Obando. 2,493
Total 54,360 233 5 7
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More information Province, Pueblo ...
Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Cagayan, 1818)[53]: 466 
Province Pueblo Native Families Spanish Filipino Families
Cagayan Lal-lo, cabecera. 975 313
Camalaniugan. 1,156
Piat y su visita. 899
Tabang.. 201
Cabagan. 3,543
Malaveg con su visita Mabanaug. 524
Tuao.. 1,393
Iguig y su visita Amulong. 403
Tuguegarao. 5,072
Aparri.. 1,715
Abulug. 1,162 1
San Juan y su visita Masi. 913
Nasiping y su visita Gataran. 573
Ilagan.. 1,150
Gamú y su visita Furao. 586 16
Tumauini. 827
Bugay.. 299
Aritao.. 580
Dupax. 867 6
Bambang.. 893
Bayombong. 771
Lumabang. 332
Bagabag y su Fuerza. 508
Carig y su Fortaleza el Sto. Niño. 305
Camarag. 488
Angadanan. 320
Cauayan. 318
Calaniugan. 135
TOTAL 26,726 336
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More information Province, Pueblo ...
Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Calamianes, 1818)[51]: 456 
Province Pueblo Native Families Spanish Filipino Families
Islas de Calamianes
Calamianes Culion en la de Calamianes, Isla de Linacapan, e Isla de Coron. 1,044 2
Isla de Paragua
Taytay, Silanga, Meitejet, Pancol, Guinlo, y Barbacan. 1,424 4
Islas de Dumaran y Agutay
Isla y pueblo de Dumaran e Isla y pueblo de Agutay. 632
Islas de Cuyo
Isla y pueblo de Cuyo y su anejo, Canipo, e Isla de Pagaguayan. 2,430 25
TOTAL 5,530 31
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More information Province, Pueblo ...
Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Camarines, 1818)[52]: 605 
Province Pueblo Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Lacandula Families Negro Filipinos Chinese Filipinos
Partido de Vicol (Ciudad de Nueva-Caceres)
Camarines Tabaco y Santa Cruz. 3,593 301 4 3
Naga. 956
Camaligan. 1,388
Canaman. 1,589
Magarao ó Mangarao. 1,862
Bombom ó Bonbon. 1,245
Quipayo. 784
Calabanga. 1,174
Libmanan ó Libnanan. 1,490 1
Milaor. 1,902 7
San Fernando. 688 2
Minalabag. 901
Partido de la Rinconada
Bula. 471
Bao ó Baao. 1,538 37 4
Nabua. 2,612 2 2
Iriga. 2,040 1
Buhi ó Buji. 1,979 10
Bato. 495
Partido de la Iriga
Libon. 410 4
Polangui. 2,903 15
Ors ú Oas. 3,614
Ligao. 2,968 24
Guinobatan. 2,605 1
Camalig. 2,330 39 9
Cagsava. 2,870
Monte Isaroc
Pueblo y Mision de Manguirin. 160 629
Goa, Tigabon y Tinambag. 1,123 2 625
Partido de la Contra-Costa
Sipocot, Lupi y Ragay. 406
Daet. 1,449 26 10
Talisay. 1,055 2
Indan. 675 6
Paracale. 697 34
Mambulao. 950
Capalonga. 137 4
TOTAL 50,762 512 2 1,287 3
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More information Province, Pueblo ...
Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Capiz, 1818)[52]: 606 
Province Pueblo Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Lacandula Families Negro Filipino families Chinese Filipino families
Capiz Capiz y su visita Ibisan. 2,650
Panay. 2,275
Panitan. 1,485
Dumalag y sus visitas Dao y Tapas. 3,158
Dumarao. 2,600
Mambusao y sus visitas Sigma y Jamindan. 1,924 13
Batan y su visita Sapiang. 2,255 56
Banga y su visita Madalag. 1,579 8
Malinao. 1,487 11
Calibo y su visita Macao. 2,700 167
Ibajay. 1,268 30
Isla de Romblon
Romblon. 1,514 15
Isla de Sibuyan
Cauit, Pagalar, y Cajidiocan. 1,114
Isla de Banton
Banton.
Isla de Tablas
Guintinguian, Aghagacay, Odiongan, Lanan, y Loog.
Isla de Simara
San José, Coloncolon.
Isla del Maestre de Campo
Sibali.
TOTAL 26,009 285
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More information Province, Pueblo ...
Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Caraga, 1818)[52]: 542 
Province Pueblo Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Lacandula Families Negro Filipino families Chinese Filipino families
Distrito de Surigao y Siargao
Caraga Surigao (cabecera), Tagauan, Gigaquit ó Higaguit, Cabubungan, Isla y pueblo de Dinagat, Caco en la isla de Siargao, Dapa en dicha isla, Cabuntug en la misma isla, Sapao en la citada isla. 2,475 25
Distrito de Butuan y Talacogon
Butuan, Habungan, Tabay, Maynio, Talacogon. 1,593 10
Distrito de Cantilan y Mision de San Juan
Lutao, Hingoog, Cantilan, Tago, Tandac, Lianga y la Mision de San Juan. 1,155
Distrito de Bislic y Mision de Caraga
Jinatuan, Bislic, Catel, Bagangan y la Mision de Caraga. 955
TOTAL 6,178 35
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More information Province, Pueblo ...
Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Cavite, 1818)[52]: 564 
Province Pueblo Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Lacandula Families Negro Filipino families Morenos Chinese Filipino families
Cavite Plaza y puerto de Cavite. 221 153 5 100
San Roque. 3,906 143 3 35
Cavite viejo. 1,855 55 4
Bacood ó Bacor. 1,729 19 4
San Francisco de Malabon. 1,510 69 3
Santa Cruz de Malabon. 2,090 3 1 2
Pueblo y Hacienda de Nait. 942 3 4 2
Marigondon. 2,043 3
Indan. 2,759 36 2
Silang. 2,255 6 1 4
Imus. 2,015 125 5
TOTAL 21,325 612 14 164
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More information Province, Pueblo ...
Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Cebu, 1818)[52]: 609 
Province Pueblo Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Lacandula Families Negro Filipino families Chinese Filipino families
Isla de Cebu
Cebu Cabecera, El Sto. Nombre de Jesus. 868 255
Parian, Yutaos y Sogod con la visita de este, Simugui. 1,795 109
San Nicolás y sus visits Talisay, Lipata, Tansan, y Pitao. 2,420
Opon y Talamban. 2,850
Mandave ó Mandaui. 2,729 20
Danao y Catmon. 2,656 57
Barili y sus visitas Duman, Jod, Malhual, Coston, Badian y Taiuran. 1,943 14
Samboan y sus visitas Jiratilan, Malabuyot, y Taburan. 2,496 69
Bolojon y sus visitas Tayon, Calob, Mambuji y Yunan. 2,420
Dalaguete. 2,556
Argao y Carcar. 3,250
Isla de Bantayan
Bantayan y sus visitas Octon y Davis, Daan, Bantayan y sus visits Sogod y Cavit. 2,169 75
Isla de Siquijor
Siquijor y su visita Canoan. 2,450 46
Isla de Bohol
Inabangan y sus visitas Pampan, Corte, Taoran, Canogon, Tubigon, Ipil, Talibon, Tabigui, Inbay, y Cabulao. 1,815 41
Gindulman y sus visitas Quimale y Cugton. 1,500 6
Jagna. 3,255
Dimiao. 2,016
Loay. 1,614 5
Lobog y su anejo S. Isidro. 3,852
Baclayon. 3,549 5
Tagbilaran. 2,370 2
Pimin-vitan. 1,414
Malabohoo. 2,269
Loon y su visita Catarbacan. 1,990
Calape y sus visitas Bintig y Mondoog. 1,932
Isla de Davis
Davis. 2,055 9
Panglao. 1,350
Isla de Camotes
Poro y sus visitas (administración de Mandave).
TOTAL 60,305 638
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Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Ilocos Norte, 1818)[52]: 95 
Province Pueblo Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Lacandula Families Negro Filipino families Chinese Filipino families
Ilocos Norte Bangui. 1,449 5
Nagpartian. 423
Pasuquin. 1,530
Bacarra. 4,901
Vintar. 2,064
Sarrat ó San Miguel de Cuning. 2,755
Pigdig y su visita Santiago. 4,015
Dingras. 4,559
Laoag. 12,055
San Nicolás. 3,498
Batac. 7,026
Paoay. 7,447
Badoc. 3,356
TOTAL 55,078 5
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Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Ilocos Sur, 1818)[51]: 505 
Province Pueblo Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Lacandula Families Negro Filipino families Chinese Filipino families
Ilocos Sur Sinait. 2,625
Cabugao. 3,595
Lapoc. 1,791
Masingal. 2,740
Bantay y su visita San Ildefonso. 5,535
Santo Domingo. 2,912 36
San Vicente Ferrer. 2,113 10
Santa Catalina. 4,292
Vigan. 6,849 421 14
Santa Catalina V. y M. 1,750
Narvacan. 4,185
Santa Maria. 2,985
San Esteban. 819
Santiago. 1,023
Candong. 5,709
Santa Lucia y su visita Santa Cruz con la mision de Ronda. 3,690
Tagudin y Ous. 2,620
Mision llamada Sevilla.
Mision de Argaguinan.
Bangas y sus misiones. 2,582
Villa-Cruz y San Rafael.
Namacpacan. 2,564
Balaoan. 2,703
Distrito del Abra
Tayum en el Abra. 1,307 4
Bangued en idem. 1,836 9
TOTAL 61,397 530 14
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Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Iloilo, 1818)[51]: 506 
Province Pueblo Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Lacandula Families Negro Filipino families Chinese Filipino families
Iloilo Iloilo (cabecera) y Guimaras. 1,594 103
Molo. 3,457 23
Mandurrio. 5,966
Barotac, Asuy y Batag. 1,200
Ooton. 5,395
Tigbauan. 3,248
Guimbal y Tabungan. 4,209
Miagao. 4,096
San Joaquin. 1,180
Igbaras. 3,329
Camando. 1,974
Alimodian y San Miguel. 4,230
Ma-asin. 2,880
Cabatuan. 6,470
Xaro. 6,871
Santa Bárbara. 3,600
Janiuay. 4,158
Lambuso. 1,040
Calinog. 960
Pasi y Abaca. 2,637
Laglag y Diale. 2,252
Pototan. 3,000
Dumangas, Anilao, Banate y Barotac. 3,200
TOTALS 77,862 126
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Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Laguna, 1818)[51]: 507 
Province Pueblo Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Lacandula Families Negro Filipino families Morenos Chinese Filipino families
Laguna Pagsanjan, cabecera. 4,785 7
Lumban. 1,983
Paete. 1,088
Longos con su anejo San Antonio del Monte. 944
Paquil. 628
Panguil. 1,030
Siniloan. 1,911
Mavitac. 525
Santa Maria Caboan. 257
Cavioli. 854
Majayjay. 4,948
Lilio. 2,168
Nagcarlan. 2,557
Santa Cruz. 2,528
Bay. 668
Pueblo y hacienda de Calauang. 610 2
Pila. 1,117 3
Los Baños. 460 5
Calamba. 959 4 15
Cabuyao. 1,755 1 14
Santa Rosa. 1,760 9
Biñan. 2,598 8 2 2
San Pedro Tunasau. 1,112 2 1
Pililla. 1,096
Tanay. 1,352
Binangonan de Bay. 1,234
Moron. 1,747
Baras. 486 3
Pueblo y hacienda de Angono. 513 2 2 3
TOTAL 40,239 34 5 6 41
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Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Leyte, 1818)[51]: 508 
Province Pueblo Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Lacandula Families Negro Filipino families Chinese Filipino families
Leyte Taclovan (cabecera) y Palo. 2,290 11
Tanauan. 2,155 29
Dulag y Abuyog. 2,229 14
Barayuen, Haro y Alang-alang. 864
Barugo y San Miguel. 626
Carigara y su visita Leyte. 2,253
Palompon, Ogmug y Baybay. 826
Hilongos, Bato, Matalom, y Cajanguaan. 1,231 2
Indan, Dagami, e Isla de Panamao. 1,978
Islas de Biliran y Maripipi
Biliran, Isla de Maripipi, y Maripipi. 538
Isla de Panahon y Costa Sur
Isla de Panahon, Ma-asin, Sogod, Cabalian, y Liloan. 1,450
TOTALES 16,244 56
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Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Mariana Islands, 1818)[51]: 308 
Provinces Pueblos Native Citizens Spanish Citizen
Marianas Islands (Across the Province in General) 7,555 160
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Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Mindoro, 1818)[51]: 513 
Province Pueblo Number of Native Families Number of Spanish Filipino Families Lacandula Families Negro Filipino families Morenos Chinese Filipino families
Mindoro Calapan (cabecera) y sus anejos Baco, Sabuan, Abra de Ilog y Dongon. 970 8
Naujan y sus anejos Pola, Pinamalayan, Mamalay, Manaol, Bulalacao, Bongabon, Manjao, Manguirin y la Isla de Ilin. 924 6
Isla de Marinduque
Santa Cruz de Napo. 1,600 1
Boac. 1,908 31 4
Gazan. 316 1 1
Isla de Luban
Luban. 1,699
TOTAL 7,455 47 5
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Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Misamis)[51]: 514 
Province Pueblo Number of Native Families Number of Spanish Filipino Families Lacandula Families Negro Filipino families Morenos Chinese Filipino families
Partido de Misamis
Misamis Plaza y presidio de Misamis, y su anejo Loculan. 334
Presidio de Iligan, con su anejo Initao. 169
Partido de Dapitan
Dapitan, y su visita San Lorenzo de Ilaya. 666 2
Lobungan, y sus visitas Dipolog, Piao, Dohinog, y Dicayo. 701
Partido de Cagayan
Cagayan, y sus visitas Iponau, Mulingan, Agusan, Cagaloan, Lasaan, Balingasay, Salay, Quinoquitan ó Bacay, Mubijut, y la Mision de Pinangudan. 3,177 1
Isla de Camiguin (Partido de Catarman)
Catarman, y sus visitas Mambujao, Guinsiliban, y Sagay. 1,693 35
TOTAL 6,740 38
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Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Samar, 1818)[54]: 113 
Provinces Pueblos Native Families Spanish Filipino Families Negrito Families Chinese Filipino Families
Samar Samar island, in general. 16,671 174
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Felipe Bravo Census Demographics (Zamboanga, 1818)[51]: 482 
Provinces Pueblos Native Citizens Spanish Filipino Soldiers Kapampangan Soldiers Spanish and Mexican Citizens
Zamboanga Zamboanga-province and peninsula . 8,640 300 100 A very large but unknown amount of the civilian population, they are mostly employed in the navy and shipping.
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Anthropology

Main article: Genetic and anthropology studies on Filipinos
A Craniometric Racial Graph of Filipinos (using Historical samples and Modern samples) by Matthew C. Go. Structure map showing estimated ancestry proportions for the historical (H) and modern (M) Filipino populations when shown using the posterior group membership probability for reference pools that are Hispanic, Asian, European, and African. Every person is symbolized by a single vertical line divided into four segments of varying colors, each of which represents the estimated ancestry elements. The posterior probability value is the length of the colored section. The people are arranged in decreasing order according to their amount of estimated Asian heritage.

A 2018-2020 Census research data shows that it may be incomplete as there was a large span of time ever since racial statistics were recorded in Spanish censuses and the new Philippine censuses does not account for racial differences, thereby ignoring foreign ancestry that has been compounding in time. To address this, scientists have undergone Anthropology studies of Filipinos to measure ethnic ratios in the population. Scientist, Matthew C. Go, in a Trihybrid Ancestry Variation Analysis approach to Admixture in Filipinos, published a study wherein it was discovered that upon exhuming the remains around the public cemetery of the "Manila North Cemetery" as well as other public cemeteries across the Philippines, and practicing forensic anthropology on them, Matthew C. Go estimated that 71% of the mean amount, among the samples exhumed, have attribution to Asian descent while 7% is attributable to European descent.[55] Filipinos have significantly less Asian ancestry compared to other Asian nationalities like the Koreans who are 90% Asian, Japanese at 96%, Thai at 93%, and Vietnamese at 84%.[55]

Nevertheless, a 2019 Anthropology Study by Beatrix Dudzik, while using skeletons collated by the University of the Philippines and sampled from all across the Philippines, thus published in the Journal of Human Biology, using physical anthropology, estimated that, 72.7% of Filipinos are Asian, 12.7% of Filipinos can be classified as Hispanic, 7.3% as Indigenous American, African at 4.5% and European at 2.7%.[56] However, this is only according to an interpretation of the data wherein the reference groups, which were attributed to the Filipino samples; for the Hispanic category, were Mexican-Americans, and the reference groups for the European, African, and Indigenous American, categories, were: White Americans, Black Americans, and Native Americans from the USA, while the Asian reference groups were sourced from Chinese, Japanese, and Vietnamese origins.[56]

In contrast, a different anthropology study using Morphoscopic ancestry estimates in Filipino crania using multivariate probit regression models by J. T. Hefner, published on year 2020, while analyzing Historic and Modern samples of skeletons in the Philippines, paint a different picture,[57] in that, when the reference group for "Asian" was Thailand (Southeast Asians) rather than Chinese, Japanese, and Vietnamese; and the reference group for "Hispanic" were Colombians (South Americans) rather than Mexicans,[57] the combined historical and modern sample results for Filipinos, yielded the following ratios: Asian at 48.6%, African at 32.9%, and only a small portion classifying as either European at 12.9%, and finally for Hispanic at 5.7%.[57]

Historical terms

These are historical Spanish terms[58] used to identify the different types of names given to the people living in the colony.

They are:[59][60]

  • "Español" - A pure White European person from Spain.
  • "Peninsulares" - A pure White Spaniard born in Spain but is also a settler and a citizen, living on the islands.
  • "Criollo"/"Insulares"[61][62] - A White Filipino of pure European Spanish ancestry, born and raised as citizens of the islands, or a person of pure White ancestry native to the island, who were descendants from White European settlers.
  • "Mestizo"/"Mulatto" - A native Filipino or an Indigenous American Indian person of mixed Spanish ancestry, and an African person of mixed Spanish descent.
  • "Indio" - A native Filipino or an Indigenous American Indian person, or an individual belonging to a tribal group, native to the islands.
  • "Negrito"/"Negro" - A indigenous Black Filipino person, and an African person brought to the colony as slaves to work on plantation.
  • "Sangley"[63] - A word invented and used in the Philippines to denote an individual of Chinese or other East Asian background.
  • "Islas Filipinas" - The name of the islands.
  • "Felipinas" - The name given to the islands in 1543 by explorer Ruy López de Villalobos in honor of Prince Felipe II, who later became King of Spain in 1556. This name initially referred to just the islands of Leyte and Samar. It was later on expanded to include the entire archipelago.[64]
  • "Hispano América" - The Spanish colonies in the Americas.

Present-day 21st century Filipinos

This category is about a term used to identify the different types of Filipino ethnic groups living on the islands.

They are:[65]

  • "Native Filipino" - People of un-mixed or a Filipino person of pure ancestry from the islands.
  • "Polynesian Filipino" - People of Polynesian backgrounds living on the islands, or a Filipino person of mixed Polynesian ancestry.
  • "Oriental Filipino" - People from another Asian background living on the islands, or a Filipino mixed with other oriental backgrounds, or a person of South Asian descent living in the islands.
  • "Mestizo Filipino" - A Filipino person of mixed ancestry.
  • "Hispanic Filipino" - People of mixed native Filipino and Spanish or Latin American ancestry, or a Spanish-speaking Filipino, Hispanicized Filipino, Peninsular, Criollo, or a person of Hispanic South American descent living on the islands.
  • "White Filipino" - People of White European, White American, White Latin American, White Middle Eastern and other White ethnic backgrounds living on the islands.
  • "US/Native American Filipino" - A person of White American-native descent, living on the islands.
  • "Black Filipino" - People of Black African, African American and Black Latin American backgrounds, living on the islands, or a Filipino person of mixed Black ancestry.

Religion

Main articles: Religion in Spain, Religion in Latin America, and Religion in the Philippines

The majority of Spaniards, Latin Americans and Hispanic Filipinos are Christians, with most adhering to Roman Catholicism.[66]

Language

Main articles: Languages of Spain, Spanish language in the Philippines, and Latin Union

Spanish,[67] Spanish creole (Chavacano), English, Tagalog and other Indigenous Filipino languages are spoken in their community.

Philippine Spanish

Main articles: Philippine Spanish and Instituto Cervantes

Philippine Spanish (Spanish: Español Filipino, Castellano Filipino) is a Spanish dialect and variant of the Spanish language spoken in the Philippines. Philippine Spanish is very similar to Mexican Spanish due to the contribution of grammar and vocabulary spoken by Mexican settlers in the country, during the Galleon trade. A constitution ratified in 1987 designated Filipino and English as official languages.[68] Also, under this Constitution, Spanish, together with Arabic, was designated an optional and voluntary language.[69]

Spanish is now spoken mostly by Hispanic Filipinos, educated Filipinos and Filipinos who chose to speak the language. Most Spanish Filipinos speak Spanish as their first, second or third language as they have shifted to communicating in English and Tagalog and/or other Indigenous Filipino languages in the public sphere.

Economy

Main article: Economy of the Philippines
Jaime Ayala

"Criollo (Insulares)"
Enrique Razon

"Criollo (Insulares)"
Andrés Soriano


"Criollo (Insulares)"
Ramón Aboitiz

"Torna atrás"

Prominent Philippine billionaire businessmen[70] are descendants of White Europeans (Spanish) "Peninsulares" and "Criollo" (Insulares)[71][72] settlers.

Support from wealthy Hispanic, Chinese, and Indian[73] communities in the country has played an important part of helping shape both the economy and traditional identity of the people.[74]

The most successful Hispanic individuals are found in the upper-class society, most of whom are highly educated and are involved in business and economic sectors.[75]

They support and contribute to some of the Philippines's most important investments in infrastructures such as telecommunication, technology, electricity, water, transport, banking, land economy, tourism, sport and entertainment, shipping trade and marketing.[76]

Legacy and political controversy

See also: Black legend § Southeast Asia

Public communication in the Philippines

In 1899, the First Philippine Republic promulgated a constitution that designated Spanish as the nation's official language.[77] The Philippines was the only Spanish speaking country in Asia, from the beginning of colonial rule in the 1500s until the first half of the 20th century.

It held official status for over four centuries and was redesignated as an optional language in 1987. The Philippine government under the leadership of Corazon Aquino,[78][failed verification] deliberately suspended the use of Spanish language for some unknown political[79] reasons, likely influenced and a victim of the American Black Legend.[80][81] "Discourteous" and "hypocritical" Filipino politicians influenced by third world Southeast Asian[82] corruption, political agendas, a failed government and economic system, extreme poverty and years of bleak uncertain future that still surrounds the Philippines[82] to this day, led to the People Power Revolution in 1986. The Constitution of the Philippines without conducting a "proper"[according to whom?] western-style election protocol, was controversially changed in 1987.

This disrupted the development of the language, which led the Philippines to be an incomplete Spanish-speaking country.

Filipino (largely Tagalog) and English remained as the official languages of the country as they have been in previous constitution. In 1935, Tagalog was chosen by the former Philippine president Manuel L. Quezon to be the base of a supposedly evolving "Filipino" language that ultimately would be incorporating segments from other languages spoken in the islands[83]. Quezon himself was of mixed Spanish ancestry.

Spanish still remains and continues to be understood/spoken by Spanish Filipinos and native Filipinos who chose to study &/or speak the language in public. However, it is mostly spoken and used in universities and in Hispanic communities. The Philippines is a member of the Latin Union where the language is used for education in the Instituto Cervantes, in the capital city of Manila.[84]

In 2010, the former Philippine president Gloria Arroyo, a fluent Spanish speaker,[85][86][87] re-instated the language as a compulsory subject to be taught in schools and universities.[88] One of the reasons of change was that she wanted to the Philippines to return to traditional ways of life, be bilingual, competitive, wealthy and respected, and able to compete in the world economy. The other was for global employment demands such as in the call center and business process outsourcing industries. However sixteen years later as of 2026 Q1, literacy in this language largely remains confined to a few.

Most Spanish-speaking Filipinos also use English in the public sphere and may also speak Tagalog and other Philippine languages. In addition, Chavacano (a creole language based largely in the Spanish vocabulary) is spoken in the southern Philippines and forms the majority of Zamboanga Peninsula and Basilan region.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Spain

Hispanic Filipinos share some similarities to cultural practices from people in Latin America and Spain, including a shared history, tradition, names, arts and literature, music, food, religion and language.[89]

They have also taken some influences from the United States,[90] as evidenced by their admiration for Anglo-American Popular culture.

Literature

Main articles: Spanish literature, Latin American literature, and Philippine literature
Cover of the Doctrina Christiana featuring Saint Dominic with the book's full title. Woodcut, c. 1590.
Pages of the Doctrina Christiana, an early Christian book in Spanish and Tagalog. The book contained Latin and Baybayin suyat scripts (1593).

"Literatura Filipina en Español"

Philippine literature in Spanish ("Literatura Filipina en Español") is a body of original Hispanic literature made by Filipino writers in the Spanish language which was first published in 1593 by Spanish Roman Catholic priest.[91]

Today, this corpus is the third largest in the whole corpus of Philippine literature (Philippine literature in Filipino being the first, followed by Philippine literature in English). It is slightly larger than Philippine literature in vernacular languages. However, because of the very few additions to it in the past 30 years, it is expected that the latter will soon overtake its rank.

The most popular written Hispanic literature in the Philippines is "Noli Me Tángere," a novel written by José Rizal.[92]

Art

Main articles: Spanish art, Latin American art, and Art in the Philippines

Hispanic art explores the rich history and story of the ancient world, combined with colonialism, religion[93] and contemporary way of life.[94]

Music and cinema

Main articles: Music of Spain, Music of Latin America, Music of the Philippines, Cinema of Spain, Cinema of Latin America, and Cinema of the Philippines

Hispanic music is a blend of traditional European folk music mixed with Indigenous American-Indian, Indigenous Filipino and African sounds, together with contemporary European, Latin and Anglo-American genre.[95] Films, hip-hop, pop, dance, rock and heavy metal are also popular.[96]

Cuisine

Main articles: Spanish cuisine, Latin American cuisine, and Filipino cuisine

Spanish cuisine is traditionally of European origin. Filipino cuisine is a blend of European and Asian influences.[97]

Sport

A two-storeys building with a red roof. On the façade and the roof, a figure of a moving man holding a long basket on his right hand and a helmet on his head. Since it is day, the neon tubes shaped as different phases of the player movement are barely visible. Over the figure, the letters "Ja[missing i] Alai". Cars are parked before the building.
The Basque sport of pelota is played in specialized venues such as the pictured jai alai or the earlier Manila Jai Alai Building. The players are mainly of Basque (Spanish or French) descent.
Main articles: Sport in Spain, Sport in South America, and Sports in the Philippines

Football is the most watched and played sport in Spain and in Latin America.[98][99] In the Philippines football is also popular particularly among the Hispanic communities and fans of the sport.

Tennis, basketball, beach volleyball, volleyball, baseball, boxing, UFC, cycling, motor sports and water sports are also widely appreciated in the Spanish community.[100][101]

The game of basketball is one of Spain's most popular sports and is second only to football, played at a professional level, while in the Philippines it is considered its national sport.

Notable people

Main article: List of Spanish Filipinos

A list of famous Hispanics from around the world who are part Filipino heritage, known for their status and achievements.[104][105][106]

International

Sport

Music

Films

Fashion

Literature

Fiction

Journalism

Politics

Philippines

Economics

Sport

Films

Music

Art

Fashion

Literature

Journalism

Religion

Politics

See also

Notes

  1. [a]
    Including others such as Latin-Americans and Chinese-Mestizos, pure Chinese paid tribute but were not Philippine citizens as they were transients who returned to China, and Spaniards were exempt
  2. [b]
    (299,049 pure native tributes plus 13,201 Spanish Mestizo Tributes amounting to a total of 312,250 tributes with the 13,201 Spanish Mestizo tributes being 4.22% of the total tributes)

References

Sources

External links

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