Swedish invasion of Norway (1716)
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| Swedish invasion of Norway | |||||||
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| Part of the Great Northern War | |||||||
.png) Swedish troop movements during the campaign in 1716. | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
| Swedish Empire | Denmark-Norway | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
The Swedish invasion of Norway (Swedish: Svensk invasion av Norge 1716, Norwegian: Svensk invasjon av Norge 1716) in 1716 was led by Charles XII of Sweden and took place during the Great Northern War. Despite taking the Norwegian capital of Christiania, the Swedes were unable to capture the crucial fortresses of Akershus and Fredriksten. Furthermore, they were crippled by logistical issues and harsh winter conditions. With their supply lines cut off, the Swedes were forced to abandon the campaign in late June, having failed to achieve any of their objectives.
An enterprise to land on Zealand through a frozen Øresund (the Sound) failed, and Charles shifted his focus to Norway to cripple Denmark-Norway’s position. In early February, the Swedes crossed the border and defeated a Norwegian force near Høland, then halted for several days because of a heavy snowstorm before advancing toward Christiania with General Mörner’s reinforcements. Norwegian commander Barthold Heinrich von Lützow, deeming the city indefensible, withdrew, allowing the Swedes to enter Christiania unopposed in early March after skillful maneuvers through the Bundefjord.
Attempts to outflank the Norwegian army at Gjellebekk resulted in defeats at Norderhov and Krokskogen, and the siege of Akershus failed due to a lack of artillery. Threatened with encirclement, the Swedes evacuated Christiania, and General Ascheberg's retreat in late March further complicated their position.
Charles regrouped at Torpum and attacked Fredrikshald and Fredriksten. Though Fredrikshald was taken, its commander burned the town, and Fredriksten held off a storming. The Swedish assault failed with heavy casualties, and the defeat at Dynekilen effectively concluded the campaign, prompting the Swedish withdrawal in late June.
A convention in The Hague to discuss the status of Sweden's German possessions was unsuccessful due to Charles' intervention. Consequently, in 1711, the coalition advanced into Sweden's German possessions. However, a lack of artillery meant that they achieved little that year. Despite this, the coalition captured several fortresses, including Stade. A counter-offensive by Magnus Stenbock, however, resulted in a Swedish victory at the Battle of Gadebusch. Stenbock's victory was in vain, as the coalition would pursue him, forcing his capitulation at Tönning in 1713, while the Swedish garrison of Stettin also capitulated later that year. Yet, Stralsund and Wismar, Sweden's last remaining territories on the continent, held out against these odds.[1]
While events unfolded in Northern Germany, Peter I, aiming to force Sweden to sue for peace, launched campaigns into Finland in 1713. Carl Gustaf Armfeldt, commanding the Finnish army, put forward a futile defense. Swedish defeats at Pälkäne and Storkyo eventually led to the near-complete Russian occupation of Finland in late 1714, as Armfeldt and his army fell back on Västerbotten.[2]
In November 1714, Charles returned to Europe and assumed command of the Swedish garrison in Stralsund, and in early 1715, he ordered the recapture of Usedom and Wolgast from Prussia, which had been ceded by way of the Treaty of Schwedt. This, among other provocations by the Swedes, was the final straw for Frederick William I of Prussia, and he subsequently entered the anti-Swedish coalition. Later that year, the renewed offensive by the coalition recaptured Usedom and Wolgast, and the siege of Stralsund resumed. Charles' counter-attack at Stresow failed, and Stralsund capitulated alas in December. Charles had fled Stralsund on a brigantine a day prior, arriving in Trelleborg shortly thereafter.[3][4]
Despite the return of Charles, Sweden's position remained precarious by 1716. Sweden had few allies left, mainly relying on Emperor Charles VI and Louis XIV of France. The latter seemed keen on restoring the Franco-Swedish alliance, for a treaty signed in March 1715 provided Sweden with 600,000 riksdaler for the remaining duration of the war.[5] Moreover, the subsidies brought in the enlistment of foreign troops, particularly French engineers and officers, in droves.[6] There were negotiations with the Emperor in 1715. Charles sought his support on the issue of Sweden's German possessions. Indeed, Charles VI was covertly supportive. However, it was clear that both Hanover and Prussia were too strong for Austria to dislodge. Worse yet, French mediation efforts in the war had created suspicion among the Emperor's inner circle, and the outbreak of the Ottoman-Venetian War in 1714 eventually diverted Austria's attention elsewhere.[7] Therefore, the negotiations yielded no result, and with Prussia's declaration of war on Sweden, it became clear that Sweden's position in Germany could not be salvaged.[8]
Though Charles' return reinstated optimism among the army and people, the anti-Swedish coalition was planning a multi-pronged attack on Sweden. Peter I of Russia would attack from Finland, while Frederick IV was to land in Scania.[9]
Prelude
During the siege of Stralsund, a Norwegian deserter informed Prince Frederick about the apparent lack of defense in Norway.[10][11] Subsequent discussions led to the formulation of a brief invasion plan.[12] With this information, Prince Frederick advised Charles to prepare for a winter or spring offensive into Norway. Charles agreed, partly to divert Denmark-Norway's attention from the German campaign.[11] However, the navy had to be rearmed first, as any future campaign would require its support. The arrival of winter, however, meant that the plan for Norway was put on hold.[11] Charles now intended to cross the frozen Øresund (the sound) with 10,000[10]–12,000[13][14] men from Landskrona and compel Frederick IV to peace. Swedish troops even captured the island of Hven. However, a storm broke up the ice at the last minute, prompting Charles to redirect his focus to Norway.[note 1][14]
The main objective of the campaign was to weaken Denmark-Norway, as Frederick IV would have been the central figure in any potential invasion of Sweden.[16][17] By invading Norway, Charles hoped to divert the attention of the coalition by opening a front in the west and to halt a possible invasion of Scania. Additionally, he hoped to place pressure on George I,[15] who had recently joined the war against Sweden.[18] Furthermore, the Swedish historian Otto Sjögren claims a financial motive for the campaign, as the troop numbers were adequate for the capture of Kongsberg, but insufficient for the conquest of Norway.[19]
Plan
There were preparations for the campaign, primarily concerning the allotment system,[20] though these proved insufficient when the campaign began. Additionally, the fleets in Karlskrona and Stockholm were prepared to set sail at a moment's notice despite issues regarding equipment and manpower.[21]
The main force, some 3,250 men[note 2] under Charles was to march from Värmland toward Christiania, while General Mörner marched from Vänersborg on Moss to join him in the capital with 4,000 men.[16] General Ascheberg's 800[22][23] cavalry feigned at Svinesund to deceive the Dano-Norwegians, and the forces in Jämtland[note 3] were to cut off Norwegian reinforcements from the north.[16][26] The French historian Claude Nordmann claims that Charles aimed to occupy large parts of Norway to gain leverage during future negotiations.[27]
Charles departed from Ystad on 16 February and subsequently proceeded to Karlstad. Troops were inspected at Holmedal on 19 – 22 February.[16][23][28] Furthermore, peasants were drawn from Värmland and Dalsland to hold the border.[28]
Norwegian defense
In late 1715, the commander-in-chief of Norway, General Herman Hausmann developed a comprehensive defense plan for Norway, organizing southern Norway into several military districts comprising approximately 10,000[29]–14,000 troops. Between Fredrikshald and Fredrikstad were 4,000 troops, while an additional 13,000 troops were deployed elsewhere, including northern Norway.[30] Many of these troops were peasant levies.[31] However, Copenhagen set his plan aside due to growing concerns over Charles' planned attack across the Sound. In fact, Hausmann was already scheduled to be dismissed. Upon returning from the campaign in Pomerania, one of Frederick IV's first actions was to sack General Hausmann in early 1716. The reason is unknown; perhaps it was due to his eagerness to attack the Swedes.[32]
His position was to be awarded to General Erhard Wedel Jarlsberg, but Wedel was too ill to arrive in Norway in time. Moreover, Frederick IV and Wedel frequently disagreed on matters of supply, finance, and command.[33] Until Wedel could takeover, General Barthold Heinrich von Lützow, commander of the Fredrikshald District, assumed temporary command. He promptly deployed all available troops according to Hausmann's unimplemented plan.[34][29] Lützow was also hampered by the ineffective government in Christiania, which comprised a board of five members.[34]
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