Boxer movement

In the English-speaking world, the group came to be known as the "Boxers", due to its members' practice of Chinese martial arts, at the time called "Chinese boxing".^[2][3] The term was popularized through English-language media of the time.^[4]: 104 Though the group had existed since the mid-1880s, it was first reported externally as the "National Righteousness Group" (義民會; 义民会; Yìmínhuì; I⁴-min²-hui⁴) in an 1899 Qing report intent on solving disturbances in the Shandong and Zhili Provinces.^[5] This is later clarified in a follow-up report to have been a mistake, and that the actual name is in fact "League of Harmony and Justice" (義和團; 义和团; Yìhétuán; I⁴-ho²-t'uan²), alternatively translated as "Militia United in Righteousness".

During 1898, the group was known as the Plum Blossom Fists (梅花拳; Méihuāquán; Mei²-hua¹-ch'üan²), though this name would not be used into 1899 and after.^[6]

In more recent English publications, the name of the group from 1899, variously translated as "Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists" or "Fists of Harmony and Justice" (義和拳; 义和拳; Yìhéquán; I⁴-ho²-ch'üan²),^[7] tends to be used over the yìhétuán-based name. The group is also sometimes known in English by any one of its Chinese names, with more recent publications tending to use Pinyin, and older publications using Wade–Giles or other systems.^[8]

During the rule of the Qing dynasty, non-state secret societies, such as the Big Swords Society or the White Lotus Society, often exerted significant influence and force. These groups often took advantage, through armed members, of the lack of imperial order in many areas of China, along with rampant corruption that enabled the societies to function even in well-controlled areas.

Yi-he boxing, as it was later practised by the Fists of Harmony and Justice, long predated the movement. In 1779, the Qing government already investigated rumours according to which a man named Yang practised this martial arts style in Guan County, Shandong, though state authorities were unable to confirm this at the time.^[9]

Though the Boxer movement originated in Shandong and Hebei intent on lessening governmental influence throughout China by means of violence and its goals quickly expanded to attempt to eliminate all foreign influence, which was considered at the time to have already penetrated the imperial government. The group at this time was deeply associated with other secret societies in their efforts to eliminate Christians, as can be seen in the 4 July 1896 with attacks on German missionaries in the regions of Western Shandong that later were controlled by the Boxers.^[6]

During 1898, the previously separate Boxer groups in Shandong and Hebei would fall under much more direct leadership, with the establishment of structure into the group in the form of ranks. This would also involve the renaming of the group into the "Plum Blossom Fists". However, the name-change was not used past 1898, with the name "Fists of Harmony and Justice" used instead.^[6]

On 23 May 1898, an investigation was made by the Guangxu Emperor into disturbances in the Shandong-Zhili border region by a supposed "National Righteousness Group", with the possibility of 10,000 Boxer soldiers being under group command in this region. A representative of the monarchy, Zhang Rumei, would be sent along with an army to put down any unrest in the region. The result of the meeting was not negative, with Zhang reporting that there was no trouble in the region, along with more accurate reports on the group's smaller numbers.

A series of natural disasters, famine, and growing anti-foreign sentiment resulted in an environment in which the itinerant martial arts masters at the center of the movement found receptive audiences.^[4]: 104 The Yellow River had flooded in 1898 and drought followed over the course of 1898–1900.^[4]: 104 This made entire communities in Shandong destitute.^[4]: 104 Simultaneously, foreign missionaries backed by foreign diplomatic and military power were increasingly active, with religious conversions exacerbating existing divisions in rural society and creating new ones, particularly as Chinese Christians leveraged their connections to foreign missionaries to obtain advantages in litigation and other disputes.^[4]: 104 Some Chinese linked the two phenomena, contending that the drought was influenced by Chinese Christians' refusal to worship local deities and Christian church placement and design violating principles of geomancy (feng shui).^[4]: 104 The movement was primarily composed of peasants, to which were added idle youth, ruined artisans, and laid-off workers.^[10] Some Boxer recruits were disbanded imperial soldiers and local militiamen.^[11]

The Boxers used the slogan, "Uphold the Qing, destroy foreigners!"^[12]: 21 Their main leader was Cao Futian.^[2] Other leaders in Zhili Province were Liu Chengxiang, and Zhang Decheng.

The Boxers fought with traditional swords, spears, as well as techniques that they viewed as magical arts, and sometimes guns and cannons provided to them by local officials who were sympathetic to their goals.^[12]: 21 Many martial arts masters in the movement taught charms and rituals which they contended would give their followers immunity to swords, spears, and bullets.^[4]: 104

Government responses to the rising movement were mixed, with some officials contending that the government should suppress the movement, and others contending that it should be used against the foreign powers.^[4]: 104 Some officials worried that grassroots armed movements could imperil the Qing dynasty itself.^[4]: 104 Governor Yuxian of Shandong supported the movement, contributing to its spread in the province.^[4]: 104

In 1899 and 1900, the movement spread to drought-stricken areas of Zhili, Henan, and Shanxi.^[4]: 104 In December 1899, the Qing court responded to foreign pressure by removing Yuxian as governor and replacing him with Yuan Shikai, who sought to suppress the movement in Shandong.^[4]: 104 Yuxian, now governor of Shanxi following his removal in Shandong, continued to support the movement.^[4]: 104 Members of the movement attacked and killed Chinese Christians.^[4]: 104 European and American diplomats demanded that the Qing court act in response.^[4]: 104

From January to March 1900, the Qing court issued a series of decrees on the movement which were ambiguous on the whole, both praising the movement and banning it.^[4]: 104

The movement continued to spread and broaden its activities.^[4]: 104 In addition to targeting Chinese Christians, it attacked foreigners and things the movement viewed as physical parts of foreign presence in China, such as telegraph lines, railway, and churches.^[4]: 104 The foreign powers increased their demands for the Qing court to eliminate the movement, and the Qing court responded by dispatching three battalions commanded by General Nie Shicheng to do so.^[4]: 104

In April 1900, foreign warships entered took up stations in Bohai Bay as a show of force.^[4]: 15

In mid-May 1900, the Laishui Incident occurred.^[4]: 105 After an attack by the movement on Chinese Christians in Laishui county, a force of 60 men commanded by Colonel Yang Futong clashed with the Boxers several times.^[4]: 105 On 22 May, movement forces ambushed the government forces and killed Yang.^[4]: 105 The Laishui Incident inspired increased Boxer attacks (including on railways and the occupation of Zhuozhou).^[4]: 105 It prompted the Qing court to deploy Nie Shicheng's troops to protect the Beijing-Tianjin railway from the Boxers.^[4]: 105 It also strengthened the argument by some in the Qing court who thought the movement could harnessed against the foreign powers.^[4]: 105

At the beginning of June 1900, about 450 men of the Eight-Nation Alliance arrived in Beijing to protect the foreign legations under siege by the Boxers and Imperial Army, in what became the Siege of the International Legations.^[13] Empress Dowager Cixi believed that the increased presence of foreign troops was intended to eliminate her and restore the power of the Guangxu emperor.^[4]: 105 In turn, her concern strengthened the position of those in the Qing court who believed the Boxers should be used against the foreign powers.^[4]: 105

On 6 June 1900, Boxers destroyed Luofa Rail Station, which cut the Beijing-Tianjin line.^[4]: 105 The Qing court decided to support the Boxers.^[4]: 106 During the first half of June, Boxers attacked churches, foreigner's homes, and burned the British summer legation.^[4]: 106 In turn, foreign legation guards shot indiscriminately at Chinese with no effort to distinguish Boxers from uninvolved city residents.^[4]: 105

On 10 June 1900, the Seymour Expedition, combined from the naval forces of the various foreign countries with a warship presence in Bohai Bay, left Tianjin to assist in the defense of the legation quarter in Beijing.^[4]: 106 The Seymour Expedition fought Boxers and combined forces of government troops and Boxers, and was ultimately forced to turn back to Tianjin where it arrived on 26 June.^{[4]: 106–107}

During the Seymour Expedition, the captains of the foreign warships in Bohai Bay decided to capture the Dagu Forts in order to ensure their maritime access to Tianjin.^[4]: 107 The Battle of the Dagu Forts began on 17 June, and the next day the Chinese defenses were defeated.^[4]: 107

Also on 17 June, troops commanded by Nie Shicheng began a siege of the foreign concession in Tianjin.^[4]: 107 Foreign troops lifted the siege on 22 June and placed the walled Chinese walled city of Tianjin under siege.^[4]: 107 Foreign forces captures the Chinese walled city on 14 July and then engaged in looting and raped for several days afterwards.^[4]: 107

In Beijing, Chinese government forces placed the legation quarter under siege on 20 June, a day after the order for all foreigners to leave the Beijing expired.^[4]: 107 On 21 June, China declared war on the foreign powers.^[4]: 107 Only some of the Qing armies participated, with Yuan Shikai keeping his forces out of the war and viceroys and provincial governors in Yangzi Valley area and in the south (who had opposed the Boxers since inception) not participating.^[4]: 108

On 4 August, the army of the Eight-Nation Alliance departed Tianjin for Beijing.^[4]: 108 On 14–15 August, Cixi and the Qing court fled to Xi'an.^[4]: 108 Eight-Nation Alliance forces captured Beijing and dispersed across Zhili and Shanxi both to suppress the Boxer movement and engage in a punishment campaign of Chinese, regardless of whether their targets had been involved in the movement or not.^[4]: 108 The punitive campaign covered the period of mid-August 1900 through April 1901, while negotiations proceeded.^{[4]: 108–109}

On 7 September 1901, the Boxer Protocol was signed.^[4]: 109 It required punishment of Qing officials who had worked with the Boxers, an indemnity paid by China, destruction of the Dagu Forts, and a two-year ban on China importing arms.^[4]: 109

The Boxer Rebellion is depicted in the film 55 Days at Peking, by Nicholas Ray (1963). The Boxer Rebellion is graphically depicted in the Shaw Brothers production of Boxer Rebellion, a 1976 film directed by Chang Cheh. This film was distributed in the United States as The Bloody Avengers by World Northal Corporation in 1980. The Boxers are also featured in the films Legendary Weapons of China (1981) and Shanghai Knights (2003). The Red Lanterns, an all-female group affiliated to the Boxers, are depicted in the film Once Upon a Time in China IV (1993). The Netflix series The Brothers Sun (2024) uses their name and parts of their ideology in its plot for a major protagonist group.

The Boxers are portrayed in Boxers and Saints, a comic series by Gene Luen Yang. The main character of Boxers, Lee Bao, becomes a leader of the Boxer Rebellion.

• Katipunan
• Red Turban Rebellion
• Taiping Heavenly Kingdom
• Red Lanterns (Boxer Uprising)

• Bickers, Robert A.; R. G. Tiedemann (eds.) (2007). The Boxers, China, and the World. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-5394-1.
• Buck, David D. (1987). "Recent Studies of the Boxer Movement", Chinese Studies in History 20. Introduction to a special issue of the journal devoted to translations of recent research on the Boxers in the People's Republic.
• Cohen, Paul A. (1997). History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth (Revised ed.). Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231106511.
• Elliott, Jane E. (2002). Some Did It for Civilisation, Some Did It for Their Country: A Revised View of the Boxer War. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. ISBN 962-201-973-0.
• Esherick, Joseph W. (1987). The Origins of the Boxer Uprising. U of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06459-3.
• Preston, Diana (2000). The Boxer Rebellion: The Dramatic Story of China's War on Foreigners That Shook the World in the Summer of 1900. New York: Walker. ISBN 0-8027-1361-0. British title: Besieged in Peking: The Story of the 1900 Boxer Rising (London: Constable, 1999).