Dental microwear
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Material analysis method in palaeontology
Dental microwear analysis is a method to infer diet and behaviour in extinct animals, especially in fossil specimens.[1] Typically, the patterns of pits and scratches on the occlusal or buccal surface of the enamel are compared with patterns observed in extant species to infer ecological information.[2][3] Hard foods in particular can lead to distinctive patterns (although see below). Microwear can also be used for inferring behavior, especially those related to the non-masticatory use of teeth as 'tools'. Other uses include investigating weaning in past populations.[4] Methods used to collect data initially involved a microscope and manually collecting information on individual microwear features, but software to automatically collect data have improved markedly in recent years.[5]
This method has been used on a variety of taxa, including:
- Hominids[6][7]
- Victoriapithecids[8]
- Cercopithecids[9]
- Pliopithecids[10]
- Propliopithecids[11]
- Homunculids[12]
- Parapithecids[11]
- Djebelemurids[13]
- Carpolestids[14]
- Palaeolagids[15]
- Murids[16]
- Nesomyids[17]
- Sciurids[18]
- Glirids[19]
- Castorids[20]
- Amphicyonids[21]
- Canids[22]
- Ursids[23]
- Nandiniids[24]
- Felids[25]
- Viverrids[24]
- Hyaenids[26]
- Hyaenodontids[24]
- Equids[2]
- Palaeotheriids[27]
- Rhinocerotids[28]
- Tapirids[29]
- Lophialetids[30]
- Lophiodontids[31]
- Chalicotheriids[32]
- Proterotheriids[33]
- Cebochoerids[34]
- Camelids[35]
- Merycoidontids[36]
- Suids[37]
- Tayassuids[38]
- Entelodontids[39]
- Hippopotamids[40]
- Pakicetids[41]
- Antilocaprids[42]
- Dromomerycids[43]
- Cervids[44]
- Bovids[45]
- Moschids[46]
- Tragulids[47]
- Palaeomerycids[34]
- Giraffids[48]
- Mesonychids[49]
- Megalocnids[50]
- Mylodontids[51]
- Megalonychids[50]
- Megatheriids[52]
- Nothrotheriids[53]
- Deinotheriids[34]
- Mammutids[54]
- Choerolophodontids[55]
- Stegodontids[56]
- Elephantids[57]
- Pliohyracids[58]
- Macropodids[59]
- Diprotodontids[60]
- Palorchestids[59]
- Thylacosmilids[61]
- Stagodontids[62]
- Ptilodontids[63]
- Paulchoffatiids[64]
- Herrerasaurids[65]
- Tyrannosaurids[66]
- Allosaurids[65]
- Abelisaurids[67]
- Mamenchisaurids[68]
- Turiasaurs[69]
- Diplodocids[70]
- Rebbachisaurids[71]
- Camarasaurids[69]
- Euhelopodids[68]
- Silesaurids[72]
- Thescelosaurids[73]
- Rhabdodontids[74]
- Dryosaurids[73]
- Hadrosaurids[75]
- Leptoceratopsids[76]
- Ceratopsids[77]
- Nodosaurids[74]
- Ankylosaurids[77]
- Metriorhynchids[78]
- Trilophosaurids[79]
- Varanids[80]
- Mosasaurids[81]
- Polyglyphanodontids[82]
- Elasmobranchs[83]
- Edestids[84]
- Idiognathodontids[85]
- The role of phytoliths and environmental grit in creating microwear features is not well understood and recent research suggests such items may create a surprisingly large amount of the microwear features visible in fossil samples.[86]
- A recent study suggests hard food, or at least some types, may not contribute significantly to microwear textures.[87]
- Occlusal dental microwear is rapidly turned over during life and therefore may only give information about the last few days of an individual's life. In particular, this 'last supper' effect may create a severely biased sample. This is why many researchers have focused on studying the striations on the buccal surfaces of teeth that present a life.[88]
References
- ↑ Hernando, Raquel; Fernández-Marchena, Juan Luis; Willman, John C.; Ollé, Andreu; Vergès, Josep Maria; Lozano, Marina (20 December 2020). "Exploring the utility of optical microscopy versus scanning electron microscopy for the quantification of dental microwear". Quaternary International. 569–570: 5–14. Bibcode:2020QuInt.569....5H. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2020.05.022. ISSN 1040-6182. S2CID 219761015. Retrieved 28 December 2024 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- 1 2 Rivals, Florent; Julien, Marie-Anne; Kuitems, Margot; Van Kolfschoten, Thijs; Serangeli, Jordi; Drucker, Dorothée G.; Bocherens, Hervé; Conard, Nicholas J. (December 2015). "Investigation of equid paleodiet from Schöningen 13 II-4 through dental wear and isotopic analyses: Archaeological implications". Journal of Human Evolution. 89: 129–137. Bibcode:2015JHumE..89..129R. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.04.002. PMID 25242064. Retrieved 24 March 2024 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Winkler, Daniela E.; Schulz-Kornas, Ellen; Kaiser, Thomas M.; Tütken, Thomas (29 May 2019). "Dental microwear texture reflects dietary tendencies in extant Lepidosauria despite their limited use of oral food processing". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 286 (1903) 20190544. doi:10.1098/rspb.2019.0544. PMC 6545078. PMID 31113323.
- ↑ Scott, Rachel M.; Halcrow, Siân E. (1 February 2017). "Investigating weaning using dental microwear analysis: A review". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 11: 1–11. Bibcode:2017JArSR..11....1S. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.11.026. ISSN 2352-409X.
- ↑ Strani, Flavia; Profico, Antonio; Manzi, Giorgio; Pushkina, Diana; Raia, Pasquale; Sardella, Raffaele; DeMiguel, Daniel (2018). "MicroWeaR: A new R package for dental microwear analysis". Ecology and Evolution. 8 (14): 7022–7030. Bibcode:2018EcoEv...8.7022S. doi:10.1002/ece3.4222. ISSN 2045-7758. PMC 6065344. PMID 30073064.
- ↑ Scott, Robert S.; Ungar, Peter Stuart; Bergstrom, Torbjorn S.; Brown, Christopher A.; Grine, Frederick E.; Teaford, Mark F.; Walker, Alan (August 2005). "Dental microwear texture analysis shows within-species diet variability in fossil hominins". Nature. 436 (7051): 693–695. Bibcode:2005Natur.436..693S. doi:10.1038/nature03822. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 16079844. S2CID 4431062.
- ↑ Louys, Julien; Zaim, Yahdi; Rizal, Yan; Aswan; Puspaningrum, Mika; Trihascaryo, Agus; Price, Gilbert J.; Petherick, Ansley; Scholtz, Elinor; DeSantis, Larisa R. G. (8 September 2020). "Sumatran orangutan diets in the Late Pleistocene as inferred from dental microwear texture analysis". Quaternary International. 603: 74–81. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2020.08.040. hdl:10072/399186. ISSN 1040-6182. Retrieved 4 August 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Fehringer, Leah K.; Beck, Catherine C.; Leakey, Louise N.; Princehouse, Patricia; Rowan, John; Russo, Gabrielle A.; Teaford, Mark F.; Uno, Kevin T.; Ungar, Peter Stuart (April 2025). "Dental microwear of Neogene cercopithecoids from the Turkana Basin, Kenya". Journal of Human Evolution. 201 103646. Bibcode:2025JHumE.20103646F. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2024.103646. PMID 39965434.
- ↑ Ungar, Peter Stuart; Abella, Elicia F.; Burgman, Jenny H. E.; Lazagabaster, Ignacio A.; Scott, Jessica Renee; Delezene, Lucas K.; Manthi, Fredrick K.; Plavcan, J. Michael; Ward, Carol V. (March 2020). "Dental microwear and Pliocene paleocommunity ecology of bovids, primates, rodents, and suids at Kanapoi". Journal of Human Evolution. 140 102315. Bibcode:2020JHumE.14002315U. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.03.005. PMID 28499698.
- ↑ Ungar, Peter Stuart (October 1996). "Dental microwear of European Miocene catarrhines: evidence for diets and tooth use". Journal of Human Evolution. 31 (4): 335–366. Bibcode:1996JHumE..31..335U. doi:10.1006/jhev.1996.0065. Retrieved 10 July 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- 1 2 Teaford, Mark F.; Maas, Mary C.; Simons, Elwyn L. (December 1996). "Dental microwear and microstructure in early oligocene primates from the Fayum, Egypt: Implications for diet". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 101 (4): 527–543. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199612)101:4<527::AID-AJPA7>3.0.CO;2-S. PMID 9016366. Retrieved 29 October 2025 – via Wiley Online Library.
- ↑ Marivaux, Laurent; Adnet, Sylvain; Altamirano-Sierra, Ali J.; Boivin, Myriam; Pujos, François; Ramdarshan, Anusha; Salas-Gismondi, Rodolfo; Tejada-Lara, Julia V.; Antoine, Pierre-Olivier (August 2016). "Neotropics provide insights into the emergence of New World monkeys: New dental evidence from the late Oligocene of Peruvian Amazonia". Journal of Human Evolution. 97: 159–175. Bibcode:2016JHumE..97..159M. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.05.011. PMID 27457552. Retrieved 28 September 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Marivaux, Laurent; Ramdarshan, Anusha; Essid, El Mabrouk; Marzougui, Wissem; Ammar, Hayet Khayati; Lebrun, Renaud; Marandat, Bernard; Merzeraud, Gilles; Tabuce, Rodolphe; Vianey-Liaud, Monique (4 December 2013). Viriot, Laurent (ed.). "Djebelemur, a Tiny Pre-Tooth-Combed Primate from the Eocene of Tunisia: A Glimpse into the Origin of Crown Strepsirhines". PLoS ONE. 8 (12) e80778. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...880778M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080778. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3851781. PMID 24324627.
- ↑ Biknevicius, Audrone R. (October 1986). "Dental function and diet in the carpolestidae (primates, plesiadapiformes)". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 71 (2): 157–171. Bibcode:1986AJPA...71..157B. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330710204. ISSN 0002-9483. PMID 3799823. Retrieved 13 September 2025 – via Wiley Online Library.
- ↑ Fostowicz-Frelik, Łucja; Nadachowski, Adam; Kowalewska-Groszkowska, Magdalena (March 2012). "New Data on the Miocene Stem Lagomorph Eurolagus fontannesi , and Its Northernmost Record". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 57 (1): 1–20. doi:10.4202/app.2010.0109. ISSN 0567-7920. Retrieved 29 September 2025 – via Acta Palaeontologica Polonica.
- ↑ Firmat, Cyril; Rodrigues, Helder Gomes; Renaud, Sabrina; Claude, Julien; Hutterer, Rainer; Garcia-Talavera, Francisco; Michaux, Jacques (24 August 2010). "Mandible morphology, dental microwear, and diet of the extinct giant rats Canariomys (Rodentia: Murinae) of the Canary Islands (Spain): THE EXTINCT CANARIAN GIANT RATS". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 101 (1): 28–40. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2010.01488.x. Retrieved 30 August 2025 – via Oxford Academic.
- ↑ Hopley, Philip J.; Latham, Alf G.; Marshall, Jim D. (17 April 2006). "Palaeoenvironments and palaeodiets of mid-Pliocene micromammals from Makapansgat Limeworks, South Africa: A stable isotope and dental microwear approach". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 233 (3–4): 235–251. Bibcode:2006PPP...233..235H. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.09.011. Retrieved 30 September 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Gusovsky, Vladimir V.; Sinitsa, Maxim V. (2 January 2021). "Dietary preferences and autecology of a basal Holarctic ground squirrel Spermophilinus (Rodentia: Sciuridae: Xerinae), inferred from dental microwear analysis". Historical Biology. 33 (1): 54–61. Bibcode:2021HBio...33...54G. doi:10.1080/08912963.2019.1677641. ISSN 0891-2963. Retrieved 10 September 2025 – via Taylor and Francis Online.
- ↑ Kaya, Ferhat; Kaymakçı, Nuretdin (September 2013). "Systematics and dental microwear of the late Miocene Gliridae (Rodentia, Mammalia) from Hayranlı, Anatolia: Implications for paleoecology and paleobiodiversity". Palaeontologia Electronica. doi:10.26879/385. ISSN 1094-8074. Retrieved 30 September 2025.
- ↑ Yang, Yangheshan; Li, Qiang; Ni, Xijun; Cheng, Xiaodong; Zhang, Jie; Li, Honglong; Jin, Changzhu (30 July 2021). "Tooth micro-wear analysis reveals that persistence of beaver Trogontherium cuvieri (Rodentia, Mammalia) in Northeast China relied on its plastic ecological niche in Pleistocene". Quaternary International. 591: 70–79. Bibcode:2021QuInt.591...70Y. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2021.01.004. Retrieved 11 September 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Goillot, Cyrielle; Blondel, Cécile; Peigné, Stéphane (1 January 2009). "Relationships between dental microwear and diet in Carnivora (Mammalia) — Implications for the reconstruction of the diet of extinct taxa". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 271 (1–2): 13–23. Bibcode:2009PPP...271...13G. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.09.004. Retrieved 6 April 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Prassack, Kari A.; DuBois, Josephine; Lázničková-Galetová, Martina; Germonpré, Mietje; Ungar, Peter Stuart (March 2020). "Dental microwear as a behavioral proxy for distinguishing between canids at the Upper Paleolithic (Gravettian) site of Předmostí, Czech Republic". Journal of Archaeological Science. 115 105092. Bibcode:2020JArSc.115j5092P. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2020.105092. Retrieved 25 February 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Pappa, Spyridoula; Schreve, Danielle C.; Rivals, Florent (15 January 2019). "The bear necessities: A new dental microwear database for the interpretation of palaeodiet in fossil Ursidae". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 514: 168–188. Bibcode:2019PPP...514..168P. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.10.015. ISSN 0031-0182. S2CID 134140217.
- 1 2 3 Bastl, Katharina; Semprebon, Gina; Nagel, Doris (1 September 2012). "Low-magnification microwear in Carnivora and dietary diversity in Hyaenodon (Mammalia: Hyaenodontidae) with additional information on its enamel microstructure". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 348–349: 13–20. Bibcode:2012PPP...348...13B. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.05.026. Retrieved 17 December 2024 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ DeSantis, Larisa R. G.; Schubert, Blaine W.; Scott, Jessica Renee; Ungar, Peter Stuart (26 December 2012). Goswami, Anjali (ed.). "Implications of Diet for the Extinction of Saber-Toothed Cats and American Lions". PLoS ONE. 7 (12) e52453. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...752453D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052453. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3530457. PMID 23300674.
- ↑ Stynder, Deano D.; Ungar, Peter Stuart; Scott, Jessica Renee; Schubert, Blaine W. (1 September 2012). "A Dental Microwear Texture Analysis of the Mio-Pliocene Hyaenids from Langebaanweg, South Africa". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 57 (3): 485–496. doi:10.4202/app.2011.0053. ISSN 0567-7920.
- ↑ Joomun, Sarah C.; Hooker, Jerry J.; Collinson, Margaret E. (24 March 2010). "Changes in dental wear of Plagiolophus minor (Mammalia: Perissodactyla) across the Eocene–Oligocene transition". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 30 (2): 563–576. Bibcode:2010JVPal..30..563J. doi:10.1080/02724631003618124. ISSN 0272-4634. Retrieved 19 August 2025 – via Taylor and Francis Online.
- ↑ Hullot, Manon; Laurent, Yves; Merceron, Gildas; Antoine, Pierre-Olivier (2021). "Paleoecology of the Rhinocerotidae (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) from Béon 1, Montréal-du-Gers (late early Miocene, SW France): Insights from dental microwear texture analysis, mesowear, and enamel hypoplasia". Palaeontologia Electronica. doi:10.26879/1163. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
- ↑ DeSantis, Larisa R. G.; Sharp, Alana C.; Schubert, Blaine W.; Colbert, Matthew W.; Wallace, Steven C.; Grine, Frederick E. (1 June 2020). "Clarifying relationships between cranial form and function in tapirs, with implications for the dietary ecology of early hominins". Scientific Reports. 10 (1) 8809. Bibcode:2020NatSR..10.8809D. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-65586-w. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 7264299. PMID 32483196.
- ↑ Gong, Yan-Xin; Wang, Yuan-Qing; Mao, Fang-Yuan; Bai, Bin; Li, Qian; Wang, Hai-Bing; Jin, Xun; Meng, Jin (2 September 2021). "Dietary reconstruction and palaeoecology of Eocene Lophialetidae (Mammalia: Tapiroidea) from the Erlian Basin of China: evidence from dental microwear". Historical Biology. 33 (9): 1624–1635. Bibcode:2021HBio...33.1624G. doi:10.1080/08912963.2020.1722660. ISSN 0891-2963. Retrieved 20 November 2024 – via Taylor and Francis Online.
- ↑ Hullot, Manon; Robinet, Céline; Vautrin, Quentin; Tabuce, Rodolphe; Antoine, Pierre-Olivier; Merceron, Gildas; Lihoreau, Fabrice (1 October 2025). "Evolution of dietary preferences of the Lophiodontidae (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) from Southern France". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 675 113076. Bibcode:2025PPP...67513076H. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2025.113076. Retrieved 1 September 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Schulz, Ellen; Fahlke, Julia M.; Merceron, Gildas; Kaiser, Thomas M. (2007). "Feeding ecology of the Chalicotheriidae (Mammalia, Perissodactyla, Ancylopoda). Results from dental micro- and mesowear analyses" (PDF). Verhandlungen des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins in Hamburg. 43: 5–31. Retrieved 27 August 2025.
- ↑ Corona, Andrea; Ubilla, Martín; Perea, Daniel (28 September 2018). "New records and diet reconstruction using dental microwear analysis for Neolicaphrium recens Frenguelli, 1921 (Litopterna, Proterotheriidae)". Andean Geology. 46 (1): 153. Bibcode:2018AndGe..46..153C. doi:10.5027/andgeoV46n1-3136. hdl:20.500.12008/22426. ISSN 0718-7106. Retrieved 19 September 2025 – via Colibri.
- 1 2 3 Xafis, Alexandros; Saarinen, Juha; Bastl, Katharina; Nagel, Doris; Grímsson, Friðgeir (11 June 2020). "Palaeodietary traits of large mammals from the middle Miocene of Gračanica (Bugojno Basin, Bosnia-Herzegovina)". Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments. 100 (2): 457–477. Bibcode:2020PdPe..100..457X. doi:10.1007/s12549-020-00435-2. ISSN 1867-1594. PMC 7320953. PMID 32647552.
- ↑ Semprebon, Gina M.; Rivals, Florent (1 September 2010). "Trends in the paleodietary habits of fossil camels from the Tertiary and Quaternary of North America". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 295 (1–2): 131–145. Bibcode:2010PPP...295..131S. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.05.033. Retrieved 10 July 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Semprebon, Gina M.; Rivals, Florent; Janis, Christine M. (19 March 2019). "The Role of Grass vs. Exogenous Abrasives in the Paleodietary Patterns of North American Ungulates". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 7 65. Bibcode:2019FrEEv...7...65S. doi:10.3389/fevo.2019.00065. ISSN 2296-701X.
- ↑ Hunter, John P.; Fortelius, Mikael (31 March 1994). "Comparative dental occlusal morphology, facet development, and microwear in two sympatric species of Listriodon (Mammalia: Suidae) from the middle Miocene of western Anatolia (Turkey)". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 14 (1): 105–126. Bibcode:1994JVPal..14..105H. doi:10.1080/02724634.1994.10011541. ISSN 0272-4634. Retrieved 14 November 2024 – via Taylor and Francis Online.
- ↑ Bradham, Jennifer L.; DeSantis, Larisa R. G.; Jorge, Maria Luisa S. P.; Keuroghlian, Alexine (15 June 2018). "Dietary variability of extinct tayassuids and modern white-lipped peccaries ( Tayassu pecari ) as inferred from dental microwear and stable isotope analysis". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 499: 93–101. Bibcode:2018PPP...499...93B. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.03.020. S2CID 134099913. Retrieved 28 September 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Rivals, Florent; Belyaev, Ruslan I.; Basova, Vera B.; Prilepskaya, Natalya E. (1 February 2023). "Hogs, hippos or bears? Paleodiet of European Oligocene anthracotheres and entelodonts". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 611 111363. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2022.111363. Retrieved 14 September 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Boisserie, Jean-Renaud; Zazzo, Antoine; Merceron, Gildas; Blondel, Cécile; Vignaud, Patrick; Likius, Andossa; Mackaye, Hassane Taïsso; Brunet, Michel (27 May 2005). "Diets of modern and late Miocene hippopotamids: Evidence from carbon isotope composition and micro-wear of tooth enamel". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 221 (1–2): 153–174. Bibcode:2005PPP...221..153B. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.02.010. Retrieved 11 August 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Fahlke, Julia M.; Bastl, Katharina A.; Semprebon, Gina M.; Gingerich, Philip D. (15 September 2013). "Paleoecology of archaeocete whales throughout the Eocene: Dietary adaptations revealed by microwear analysis". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 386: 690–701. Bibcode:2013PPP...386..690F. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.06.032. Retrieved 11 January 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Semprebon, Gina M.; Rivals, Florent (27 September 2007). "Was grass more prevalent in the pronghorn past? An assessment of the dietary adaptations of Miocene to Recent Antilocapridae (Mammalia: Artiodactyla)". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 253 (3–4): 332–347. Bibcode:2007PPP...253..332S. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.06.006. Retrieved 11 September 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Semprebon, Gina; Janis, Christine; Solounias, Nikos (11 June 2004). "The diets of the Dromomerycidae (Mammalia: Artiodactyla) and their response to Miocene vegetational change". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 24 (2): 427–444. Bibcode:2004JVPal..24..427S. doi:10.1671/2431. ISSN 0272-4634. Retrieved 1 September 2025 – via Taylor and Francis Online.
- ↑ Curran, Sabrina; Terhune, Claire; Croitor, Roman; Drăgușin, Virgil; Fox, David L.; Garrett, Niki; Ironside, Lydia B.; Petculescu, Alexandru; Pobiner, Briana; Robinson, Chris; Robu, Marius; Tanţău, Ioan; Ungar, Peter Stuart (July 15, 2021). "Multiproxy paleoenvironmental reconstruction of Early Pleistocene sites from the Olteţ River Valley of Romania". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 574 110445. Bibcode:2021PPP...57410445C. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2021.110445. Retrieved February 15, 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Ungar, Peter Stuart; Merceron, Gildas; Scott, Robert S. (June 28, 2007). "Dental Microwear Texture Analysis of Varswater Bovids and Early Pliocene Paleoenvironments of Langebaanweg, Western Cape Province, South Africa". Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 14 (3): 163–181. doi:10.1007/s10914-007-9050-x. ISSN 1064-7554. Retrieved February 8, 2025 – via Springer Nature Link.
- ↑ Merceron, Gildas (January 2009). "The early Vallesian vertebrates of Atzelsdorf (Late Miocene, Austria) 13. Dental wear patterns of herbivorous ungulates as ecological indicators". Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien. 111A: 647–660. Retrieved 14 August 2025.
- ↑ Ungar, Peter Stuart; Scott, J. R.; Curran, S. C.; Dunsworth, H. M.; Harcourt-Smith, W. E. H.; Lehmann, T.; Manthi, F. K.; McNulty, K. P. (15 July 2012). "Early Neogene environments in East Africa: Evidence from dental microwear of tragulids". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 342–343: 84–96. Bibcode:2012PPP...342...84U. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.05.005. Retrieved 24 February 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Merceron, Gildas; Colyn, Marc; Geraads, Denis (15 September 2018). "Browsing and non-browsing extant and extinct giraffids: Evidence from dental microwear textural analysis". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 505: 128–139. Bibcode:2018PPP...505..128M. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.05.036. Retrieved 13 August 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ↑ Schwartz, Andrew; DeSantis, Larisa R. G.; Scott, Rob S. (1 October 2025). "Dietary change across the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum in the mesonychid Dissacus praenuntius". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 675 113089. Bibcode:2025PPP...67513089S. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2025.113089. Retrieved 29 June 2025 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- 1 2 Resar, Nicholas A.; Green, Jeremy L.; McAfee, Robert K. (March 2013). "RECONSTRUCTING PALEODIET IN GROUND SLOTHS (MAMMALIA, XENARTHRA) USING DENTAL MICROWEAR ANALYSIS". Kirtlandia. 58: 61–72. Retrieved 13 September 2025.
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