Hinduism and other religions
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In the field of comparative religion, many scholars, academics, and religious figures have looked at the relationships between Hinduism and other religions.
Indian religions
Buddhism
Buddhism and Hinduism have common origins in the Ganges culture of northern India during the "second urbanisation" around 500 BCE.[1][page needed] They have shared parallel beliefs that have existed side by side, but also pronounced differences.[2]
Jainism
Hinduism and Jainism have a rather similar view on the topic of asceticism, or, in simpler terms, abstinence. It is thought that their beliefs on the topic come from the early belief that some meditative and monastic practices cleanse the body of impurity. The Hindu theory of Karma gave Jainism a great deal of support to start promoting asceticism. Both of these traditions attribute human greed, hatred, and delusion to the presence of impure residues (samskaras or vasanas) that must be cleansed as the individual person moves towards "freedom" (death). Both of these religions believe that practicing asceticism is not only to the benefit of the individual but also to the benefit of the society as a whole. Nonviolence plays a large role in both of these religions so the concept of asceticism relies greatly on both of their beliefs.[3]
Sikhism
Abrahamic religions
Christianity
History
Although little is known of the immediate growth of the church, Bar-Daisan (154–223 CE) reports that in his time there were Christian tribes in North India which claimed to have been converted by Thomas and to have books and relics to prove it.[4]
Doctrine
Indian philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, wrote:
Unfortunately Christian religion inherited the Semitic creed of the ‘jealous God’ in the view of Christ as ‘the only begotten son of God’ so could not brook any rival near the throne. When Europe accepted the Christian religion, in spite of its own broad humanism, it accepted the fierce intolerance which is the natural result of belief in 'the truth once for all delivered to the saints.'[5]
In Hinduism (also in Jainism and Sikhism), the concept of moksha is akin to that of Buddhism's nirvana, but some scholars further claim that it is akin as well to Christianity's doctrine of salvation. Hindu sannyasi Swami Tripurari states:
... in theory the sinners of the world are the beneficiaries of Christ’s sacrifice, but it is God the father for whose pleasure Christ underwent the crucifixion, even when the father’s joy in this scenario lies in the salvation of sinners. Christ represents the intermediary between God and humanity, and his life aptly illustrates the fact that it is sacrifice by which we come to meet our maker. Thus in Christ the Divine teaches us “the way” more than he does the goal. The Christ conception represents “the way” in the sense that the way is sacrifice, out of which love arises. The Krishna conception represents that for which we not only should, but must sacrifice, compelled by the Godhead’s irresistible attributes, etc. depicted therein.[6][better source needed]
The Christian Ashram Movement, a movement within Christianity in India, embraces Vedanta and the teachings of the East, attempting to combine the Christian faith with the Hindu ashram model, and Christian monasticism with the Hindu sannyasa tradition. In Western countries, Vedanta has influenced some Christian thinkers (see also: Pierre Johanns, Abhishiktananda, Bede Griffiths), while others in the anti-cult movement have reacted against the activities of immigrant gurus and their followers.[citation needed]
Islam
Judaism
Other religions
Many theologians interpret Hinduism to teach that since all souls will eventually arrive at salvation, every religion can lead to it.[7][8]
Baháʼí Faith
Hinduism is recognized in the Baháʼí Faith as one of four known religions and its scriptures are regarded as predicting the coming of Baháʼu'lláh (Kalki avatar). Krishna is included in the succession of Manifestations of God. The authenticity of the Hindu scriptures is seen as uncertain.[9]
Zoroastrianism
The "Council of Dharmic Faiths" (UK) regards Zoroastrianism, whilst not originating in the Indian subcontinent, also as a Dharmic religion.[10]
There are direct links between Hinduism and Zoroastrianism. Many analysts of Hinduism claim that Hinduism embraces elements of all contemporary religions,[11][12] Hence scriptures of Hinduism such as Vedas and Puranas, along with Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, have incorporated and adopted significantly elements from the Avesta of Greek religion and Zoroastrianism: Asura from Ahura, Deva from Daeva, Hindu monotheism from Ahura Mazda, Varuna, Vishnu and Garuda from Agni, the heavenly juice from the drink called Soma-Haoma, the contemporary Indian and Persian war of Devasuras from Arya, Arya from Mithra, Mitra from Mithra, Dyaushpita and Jupiter from Jupiter, Yagya to Yagya, Narasanga to Narasangasa, Indra, Gandharva to Gandharva, Vajra, Vayu, Mantra, Yama, Ahuti, Hamta to Sumati etc.[13][14]
Cognate terms
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The following is a list of cognate terms that may be gleaned from comparative linguistic analysis of the Rigveda and Avesta. Both collections are from the period after the proposed date of separation (c. 2nd millennium BC) of the Proto-Indo-Iranians into their respective Indic and Iranian branches.[15][16][17]
| Vedic Sanskrit | Avestan | Common meaning |
|---|---|---|
| āp | āp | "water," āpas "the Waters"[17] |
| Apam Napat, Apām Napāt | Apām Napāt | the "water's offspring"[17] |
| aryaman | airyaman | "Arya-hood" (lit:** "member of Arya community")[17] |
| Asura Mahata/Medha (असुर महत/मेधा) | Ahura Mazda | "The Supreme Lord, Lord of Wisdom"[18][19] |
| rta | asha/arta | "active truth", extending to "order" and "righteousness"[17][16] |
| atharvan | āθrauuan, aθaurun Atar | "priest"[16] |
| ahi | azhi, (aži) | "dragon, snake", "serpent"[17] |
| daiva, deva | daeva, (daēuua) | a class of divinities |
| manu | manu | "man"[17] |
| mitra | mithra, miθra | "oath, covenant"[17][16] |
| asura | ahura | another class of spirits[17][16] |
| sarvatat | Hauruuatāt | "intactness", "perfection"[20][21] |
| Sarasvatī (Ārdrāvī śūrā anāhitā, आर्द्रावी शूरा अनाहिता) | Haraxvati/Haraxvaitī (Ārəduuī Sūrā Anāhitā) | a controversial (generally considered mythological) river, a river goddess[22][23] |
| sauma, soma | haoma | a plant, deified[17][16] |
| svar | hvar, xvar | the Sun, also cognate to Greek helios, Latin sol, Engl. Sun[20] |
| Tapati | tapaiti | Possible fire/solar goddess; see Tabiti (a possibly Hellenised Scythian theonym). Cognate with Latin tepeo and several other terms.[20] |
| Vrtra-/Vr̥tragʰná/Vritraban | verethra, vərəθra (cf. Verethragna, Vərəθraγna) | "obstacle"[17][16] |
| Yama | Yima | son of the solar deity Vivasvant/Vīuuahuuant[17] |
| yajña | yasna, object: yazata | "worship, sacrifice, oblation"[17][16] |
| Gandharva | Gandarewa | "heavenly beings"[17] |
| Nasatya | Nanghaithya | "twin Vedic gods associated with the dawn, medicine, and sciences"[17] |
| Amarattya | Ameretat | "immortality"[17] |
| Póṣa | Apaosha | "demon of drought"[17] |
| Ashman | Asman | "sky, highest heaven"[20] |
| Angira Manyu | Angra Mainyu | "destructive/evil spirit, spirit, temper, ardour, passion, anger, teacher of divine knowledge"[17] |
| Manyu | Maniyu | "anger, wrath"[17] |
| Sarva | Sarva | "Rudra, Vedic god of wind, Shiva"[20] |
| Madhu | Madu | "honey"[17] |
| Bhuta | Buiti | "ghost"[17] |
| Mantra | Manthra | "sacred spell"[17] |
| Aramati | Armaiti | "piety" |
| Amrita | Amesha | "nectar of immortality"[17] |
| Amrita Spanda (अमृत स्पन्द) | Amesha Spenta | "holy nectar of immortality" |
| Sumati | Humata | "good thought"[20][17] |
| Sukta | Hukhta | "good word"[17] |
| Narasamsa | Nairyosangha | "praised man"[17] |
| Vayu | Vaiiu | "wind"[17] |
| Vajra | Vazra | "bolt"[17] |
| Ushas | Ushah | "dawn"[17] |
| Ahuti | azuiti | "offering"[17] |
| púraṁdhi | purendi[17] | |
| bhaga | baga | "lord, patron, wealth, prosperity, sharer/distributor of good fortune"[17] |
| Usij | Usij | "priest"[17] |
| trita | thrita | "the third"[17] |
| Mas | Mah | "moon, month"[17] |
| Vivasvant | Vivanhvant | "lighting up, matutinal"[17] |
| Druh | Druj | "Evil spirit"[17] |
| Ahi Dasaka | Azhi Dahaka | "biting serpent"[24] |
Yezidism
Recently, some people have found similarities between the customs of Hindus and Yezidis, suggesting that in ancient times they may have even been one people.[25] Recent comparisons and historical research between the two people have revealed many links that now thousands of Hindus and Yezidis believe that they are part of the same family.[citation needed]
Further reading
- Musch, S. (2024). Christianity and Hinduism: German Views in the Long 19th Century." The Routledge Handbook of Christianity and Culture. Edited by Yaakov Ariel, Gregor Thuswaldner, and Jens Zimmermann. Routledge, 415-427.
- Panikkar, K. M. (1965). Asia and Western dominance. Millswood, S. Aust: Braille Writing Association of South Australia.
- Swarup, Ram (1995). Hindu view of Christianity and Islam. Hinduism vis-à-vis Christianity and Islam (Indonesian: Pandangan Hindu atas Kristen dan Islam, French: [Foi et intolérance] : un regard hindou sur le christianisme et l'Islam)
- Swarup, Ram (2015). Hinduism and monotheistic religions.
- Swarup, Ram (1995). Pope John Paul II on Eastern religions and yoga: A Hindu-Buddhist rejoinder.
- Jain, S. (2010). Evangelical intrusions: [Tripura, a case study]. New Delhi: Rupa & Co.
- Elst, Koenraad. (2002). Who is a Hindu?: Hindu revivalist views of Animism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and other offshoots of Hinduism.
- Goel, S. R. (2009). Catholic ashrams: Sannyasins or swindlers, with new appendices. New Delhi: Voice of India.
- Goel, S. R. (2016). History of Hindu-Christian encounters, AD 304 to 1996.
- Shourie, Arun (2006). Harvesting our souls: Missionaries, their design, their claims. New Delhi: Rupa.
- Shourie, Arun (2006). Missionaries in India: Continuities, changes, dilemmas. New Delhi: Rupa.
- Narain, Harsh (1997). Myths of composite culture and equality of religions.
