Okanagan language
Endangered Salish language of North America
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Okanagan, Colville-Okanagan, or Nsyilxcən (n̓səl̓xcin̓ or n̓syilxčn̓) is a Salish language that originated among the Indigenous peoples of the southern Interior Plateau. It was primarily spoken in the Okanagan and Columbia River basins of present-day Canada and the United States in the precolonial era. Following British, American, and Canadian colonization during the 19th century and the subsequent forced assimilation of Salishan peoples, the use of the language declined significantly.
75 L2 speakers (2007)
| Colville-Okanagan | |
|---|---|
| Okanagan, Colville | |
| n̓səl̓xčin̓, Nsyilxcən, n̓syil̓xčn̓ | |
| Native to | Canada, United States |
| Region | Southern Interior of British Columbia, Central-northern State of Washington |
| Ethnicity | Okanagan, Colville, Lakes, Methow |
Native speakers | 50 (2007–2014)[1] 75 L2 speakers (2007) |
Salishan
| |
| Dialects |
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | oka |
| Glottolog | okan1243 |
| ELP | Nsyilxcən |
 Okanagan is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger. | |
Colville-Okanagan is considered extremely endangered. Approximately 50 fluent first language speakers remain, the majority of whom reside in British Columbia.[2] The language is currently classified as moribund, with no first language speakers under the age of 50. Despite this, Colville-Okanagan remains the second-most spoken Salish language after Shuswap. Although it is rarely acquired as a first language, it is currently being learned as a second language by more than 40 adults and 35 children in Spokane, Washington, as well as by dozens of adults on the Colville Indian Reservation and within the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia.
History and description
Colville-Okanagan descended from Proto Southern Interior Salish, a language originally spoken in the Columbia River Basin. Prior to European contact, the language had developed into three distinct dialects: Colville, Okanagan, and Lakes. These dialects exhibit a low degree of divergence, with variations primarily limited to minor differences in pronunciation rather than significant shifts in vocabulary or grammar.
The vast majority of the Colville-Okanagan lexicon is derived from Proto-Salish or Proto-Interior Salish. Some vocabulary is shared with or borrowed from neighboring Salish, Sahaptian, and Kutenai languages, while more recent loanwords have been adopted from English and French. Colville-Okanagan remained an exclusively oral language until the late 19th century, when missionaries and linguists began transcribing it to produce word lists, dictionaries, and grammars. Today, the language is written in Latin script using the American Phonetic Alphabet.
In the native tongue, the language is referred to as n̓səl̓xčin̓ or nsyilxcn. Historically, speakers occupied the northern Columbia Basin, ranging from the Methow River in the west to Kootenay Lake in the east, and extending north along the Columbia River, the Arrow Lakes, and the Slocan Valley. All nsyilxcn-speaking bands are grouped under the ethnonym syil̓x. This term is cognate of the Spokane-Kalispel word séliš, which is the ethnonym for the Bitterroot Salish of Montana.
Colville-Okanagan is the heritage language of several groups, including:
- British Columbia: The Westbank First Nation, Lower Similkameen, Upper Similkameen, Osoyoos, Penticton, Okanagan, and Upper Nicola Indian bands.
- Washington State: The Colville, Sanpoil, Okanogan, Lakes, Nespelem, and Methow bands of the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation.
Words in the language are traditionally not capitalized. This practice reflects Colville-Okanagan ethics; as noted by practitioners, capitalization can imply a hierarchy of importance that contradicts the egalitarian values of their society.[3]
Revitalization
In 2012, CBC reported on a family teaching Okanagan to their children at home.[4] Seven nonprofit organizations currently support Okanagan language acquisition and revitalization:
- Paul Creek Language Association: Keremeos, British Columbia[5]
- Syilx Language House:[6] Penticton, British Columbia
- En'owkin Centre:[7] Penticton, British Columbia
- Osoyoos Indian Band Language House:[8] Oliver, British Columbia
- Hearts Gathered Waterfall Montessori: Omak, Washington
- Salish School of Spokane: Spokane, Washington
- Inchelium Language and Culture Association: Inchelium, Washington
Revitalization in the United States
Revitalization efforts in the United States include early childhood instruction and intensive adult speaker training. The Concentrated Tribes of the Colville Reservation actively promote preservation by allocating local and federal funds for cultural projects.[9] The Tribes' primary objectives include establishing three language programs, developing comprehensive dictionaries, providing translation services, and maintaining regular language classes with 30 or more consistent participants.[10][11]
Salish School of Spokane
The Salish School of Spokane (SSOS) (sƛ̓x̌atkʷ nsəl̓xčin̓ sn̓maʔmáyaʔtn̓) implements a comprehensive community revitalization strategy serving the Spokane metropolitan area. The school provides Okanagan immersion education for students ranging from one year old through the 9th grade. In classrooms for grades P-8, instruction is conducted entirely in Okanagan, covering core subjects such as mathematics, literacy, science, art, music and physical education.[12][13] The curriculum is designed to foster full fluency by age 15, and students are expected to use the language exclusively while on campus. As of 2022, the school also provides intensive training for over 40 adults.[13]
Twenty-eight staff members at SSOS are enrolled in the Salish Language Educator Development (SLED) program at SSOS. These staff members receive 90 minutes of immersion training daily as part of their work. Another 16 adults, parents of SSOS students, participate in paid afternoon and evening fluency track training. All SSOS parents commit to completing at least 60 hours of Okanagan language classes per year in order for their children to be eligible to attend the school. SSOS offers free, beginning language classes on evenings and weekends for SSOS parents and other community members. At Salish School of Spokane, there are 35 intergenerational pairs: 35 immersion school students who have at least one parent who is studying Okanagan in a fluency-track program.[14][15]
Salish School of Spokane aims to increase the availability of educational material by maintaining a variety of audio resources and curricula to advance Okanagan revitalization. Along with these efforts, the school provides, develops and translates curricula. The Salish School works alongside organizations such as the Paul Creek Language Association, a nonprofit based in British Columbia, on the N̓səl̓xcin̓ Curriculum Project.[16] The N̓səl̓xcin̓ Project aims to create foundational lesson plans from which language teachers can draw. The project is spearheaded by Christopher Parkin, and is translated primarily by the elder Sarah Peterson, with the additional help of Hazel Abrahamson and Herman Edwards.[17][excessive detail?]
Revitalization in Canada
The Certificate of Indigenous Language Revitalization is offered by the En'owkin Centre in partnership with the University of Victoria,[18] taught by linguist Maxine Baptiste.[citation needed] Additionally, the Centre offers a certification to become a Certified Early Childhood Education Assistant in partnership with Nicola Valley Institute of Technology.[18][failed verification] The certificate does not qualify one to teach at the secondary level, but does ensure employability in daycare and pre-K.[citation needed] These certificates aim to give potential teachers easy access to college credits from centers of higher learning like the University of Victoria, and potential education assistants can be involved in childhood education, thus establishing fluency in Okanagan early on.
The En'owkin Centre also emphasizes its college readiness programs;[citation needed] many native students perform poorly in school and the high school dropout rate for Indigenous high schoolers is very high.[19][further explanation needed]
Additionally, a "language house" was developed in 2015 in British Columbia aiming to create 10 fluent Okanagan speakers in four years.[20] In this program, participants spend 2000 hours over four years learning nsyilxcen via a variety of different teaching methods, regular assessments, frequent visits from Elders, and full immersion.[20] Following completion of the program in 2020, the Syilx Language House intended to expand by developing more language houses across the Okanagan, increasing its goal to creating 100 new nsyilxcn speakers in the 2020 cohort.[20][needs update]
UBCO Bachelor of Nsyilxcn Language Fluency
In 2011, the BC Indigenous Adult and Higher Learning Association, in collaboration with the Nicola Valley Institute of Technology and En'owkin Centre, initiated a new bachelor's degree program – the Bachelor of Nsyilxcn Language Fluency (BNLF) – offered through the University of British Columbia Okanagan to support Okanagan language learning and create new fluent speakers. The program has been led by associate professor Jeannette Armstrong since its inception. The BNLF was the first bachelor's degree of Indigenous language fluency offered in Canada and was developed as a model that could be duplicated across British Columbia.[21][22]
The Bachelor of Nsyilxcn Language Fluency is a four-year program. During the first two years, students complete an Indigenous language diploma. During the third and fourth year of the program, students are assigned a capstone project at UBCO where they work in the community to promote language learning.[22]
The first cohort of eight students graduated with a Bachelor's of Nsyilxcn Language Fluency in 2023. An additional 12 students were expected to graduate the following year, with around 100 students working towards graduation at the time.[22]
Orthography
Okanagan alphabets are always unicase, with no capital letters.
| Letter | Letter name | IPA | English explanation | Nsyilxcn example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| a | a | /a/ | as in the word father | anwí (it is you) |
| c | ci | /t͡ʃ/ | as in the word church | cʕas (crash) |
| c̓ | c̓a | /t͡sʼ/ | as in the word cats | c̓ałt (cold) |
| ə | ə | /ə/ | as in the word elephant | əcxʷuy (goes) |
| h | ha | /h/ | as in the word happy | hiw̓t (rat) |
| i | is | /i/ | as in the word see | ixíʔ (that/then) |
| k | kut | /k/ | as in the word kite | kilx (hand) |
| k̓ | k̓it | /kʼ/ | is pronounced as a hard k | k̓ast (bad) |
| kʷ | kʷup | /kʷ/ | as in the word queen | kʷint (take) |
| k̓ʷ | k̓ʷap | /kʷʼ/ | is pronounced as a hard kʷ | k̓ʷck̓ʷact (strong) |
| l | li | /l/ | as in the word love | limt (happy) |
| l̓ | əl̓ | /lˀ/ | pronounced as an abruptly stopped l | sl̓ax̌t (friend) |
| ł | łu | /ɬ/ | pronounced as a slurpy l | łt̓ap (bounce/jump) |
| ƛ̓ | ƛ̓i | /t͡ɬʼ/ | pronounced as a click tl out of the side of the mouth | ƛ̓lap (stop) |
| m | mi | /m/ | as in the word mom | mahúyaʔ (raccoon) |
| m̓ | əm̓ | /mˀ/ | pronounced as an abruptly ended m | stim̓ (what) |
| n | nu | /n/ | as in the word no | naqs (one) |
| n̓ | ən̓ | /nˀ/ | pronounce as an abruptly stopped n | n̓in̓wiʔs (later) |
| p | pi | /p/ | as in the word pop | pn̓kin̓ (when) |
| p̓ | p̓a | /pʼ/ | pronounced as a popped p | p̓um (brown) |
| q | qi | /q/ | pronounced as a k deep in the back of the throat | qáqnaʔ (grandma) |
| q̓ | q̓u | /qʼ/ | pronounced as a hard q | q̓aʔxán (shoe) |
| qʷ | qʷa | /qʷ/ | pronounced as a q with rounded lips | qʷacqn (hat) |
| q̓ʷ | q̓ʷʕay | /qʷʼ/ | pronounced as a hard q with rounded lips | q̓ʷmqin (antler) |
| r | ri | /r/ | pronounced rolled on the tongue | yirncút (make itself round) |
| s | sas | /s/ | as in the word sister | síyaʔ (saskatoon/sarvis/June berry) |
| t | ti | /t/ | as in the word top | tum̓ (mother) |
| t̓ | t̓a | /tʼ/ | pronounced as a hard t | t̓ínaʔ (ear) |
| u | u | /u/ | as in the word soon | uł (and) |
| w | wa | /w/ | as in the word walk | wikn (I saw it) |
| w̓ | əw̓s | /wˀ/ | pronounced as an abruptly ended w | sw̓aw̓ásaʔ (auntie) |
| x | xu | /x/ | pronounced as a soft h in the back of the throat | xixəw̓tm (girl) |
| x̌ | x̌a | /χ/ | pronounced as a guttural h deep in the back of the throat | x̌ast (good) |
| xʷ | xʷi | /xʷ/ | pronounced as an h in the back of the throat but with rounded lips | xʷuy (go) |
| x̌ʷ | x̌ʷay | /χʷ/ | pronounced as a guttural h in the back of the throat but with rounded lips | x̌ʷus (foam) |
| y | yi | /j/ | as in the word yellow | yus (dark/purple) |
| y̓ | y̓u | /jˀ/ | pronounced as an abruptly ended y | c̓sy̓aqn (head) |
| ʔ | ʔət | /ʔ/ | is a breath stop in the back of the throat as in the word uh-oh | ʔaʔúsaʔ (egg) |
| ʕ | ʕay | /ʕ/ | pronounced as a short a deep in the back of the throat | ʕaymt (angry) |
| ʕ̓ | ʕ̓aw | /ʕˀ/ | pronounced as an abruptly ended ʕ | ʕ̓ac̓nt (look) |
| ʕʷ | (?) | /ʕʷ/ | pronounced as a nasally ow in the back of the throat | kaʕʷm (pray) |
| səc | (?) | /s/ | pronounced as a cheesy s | səcmaḿáýaʔx (study) |
| sc | (?) | /s/ | makes the /st͡ʃ/ sound | scułm (ox) |
| səxʷ | (?) | /s/ | a less cheesy s | səxʷλẃam (firefighter) |
The letters with acute accent ⟨á⟩, ⟨ə́⟩, ⟨í⟩, and ⟨ú⟩ are not counted as separate letters in this alphabet.
| a | á | c | cʼ | ə | ə́ | ɣ | ɣʼ | h | ḥ | i | í | k | kʼ | kʷ | kʼʷ | l | lʼ | ɬ | ƛʼ | m | mʼ | n | nʼ | p |
| t | qʼʷ | qʼ | qʷ | q | r | rʼ | s | pʼ | tʼ | u | ú | w | wʼ | x | xʷ | x̌ | x̌ʷ | y | yʼ | ʔ | ʕ | ʕʼ | ʕʷ | ʕʼʷ |
Phonology
Consonants
Consonant inventory of Okanagan is as follows:[24]
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Pharyngeal | Glottal | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| median | affricate | lateral | plain | labial | plain | labial | plain | labial | |||||
| Stop | plain | p ⟨p⟩ | t ⟨t⟩ | ts ~ tʃ ⟨c/č⟩ | k ⟨k⟩ | kʷ ⟨kʷ⟩ | q ⟨q⟩ | qʷ ⟨qʷ⟩ | ʔ ⟨ʔ⟩ | ||||
| ejec. | pʼ ⟨p̓⟩ | tʼ ⟨t̓⟩ | tsʼ ⟨c̓⟩ | tɬʼ ⟨ƛ̓⟩ | kʼ ⟨k̓⟩ | kʷʼ ⟨k̓ʷ⟩ | qʼ ⟨q̓⟩ | qʷʼ ⟨q̓ʷ⟩ | |||||
| Fricative | s ~ ʃ ⟨s/š⟩ | ɬ ⟨ɬ/ł⟩ | x ⟨x⟩ | xʷ ⟨xʷ⟩ | χ ⟨x̌/x̣⟩ | χʷ ⟨x̌ʷ/x̣ʷ⟩ | h ⟨h⟩ | ||||||
| Sonorant | plain | m ⟨m⟩ | n ⟨n⟩ | l ⟨l⟩ | j ⟨y⟩ | ɣ ⟨ɣ⟩[a] | w ⟨w⟩ | ʕ ⟨ʕ⟩[b] | ʕʷ ⟨ʕʷ⟩ | ||||
| glottal. | mˀ ⟨m̓⟩ | nˀ ⟨n̓⟩ | lˀ ⟨l̓⟩ | jˀ ⟨y̓⟩ | wˀ ⟨w̓⟩ | ʕˀ ⟨ʕ̓⟩ | ʕˀʷ ⟨ʕ̓ʷ⟩ | ||||||
| Trill | plain | r ⟨r⟩ | |||||||||||
| glottal. | rˀ ⟨r̓⟩ | ||||||||||||
- Sometimes realized as a uvular flap in the Southern Okanagan dialect.[26]
Vowels
The vowels found in Lakes are: [i], [a], [u], [ə], and [o]. Stress will fall only on the full vowels [i], [a], and [u] in Okanagan.
Grammar
Morphology
The morphology of Okanagan is fairly complex. It is a head-marking language that relies mostly on grammatical information being placed directly on the predicate by means of affixes and clitics. The combination of derivational and inflectional suffixes and prefixes that are added onto the stem words make for a compact language.[27]
Person markers
Okanagan demonstrates great flexibility when dealing with persons, number, and gender. The language encodes the person via a series of prefixes and suffixes, and uses its number system in tandem with pluralized pronominals to communicate the number of actors within a sentence. For example:
In this example the k- classification designates that the word contains a numeral classifier.
Additionally, Okanagan relies heavily on the use of suffixes to designate gender. Okanagan handles gender in much the same way, by attaching both determiner and 'man' to the sentence, the gender of an object or subject can be communicated:
In this example, there is a combination of 2nd singular marker with 'wife'. 'She' is encoded into the meaning of the word via the inclusion of the gender suffix at the end of the sentence.
Person markers within Okanagan are attached to verbs, nouns, or adjectives. The marker used depending on transitivity of verbs and other conditions outlined below. The person maker used largely depends on the case being used in the sentence.
Absolutive case
Absolutive markers within Okanagan can only be used if the predicate of the sentence is intransitive. For example, Kən c'k-am (I count) is perfectly viable in Okanagan, but *Kən c'k-ən-t *(I count it) is not, because the verb 'count' is transitive. Person markers never occur without an accompanying intransitive verb.[27]
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | kən | kʷu |
| 2nd person | kʷ | p |
| 3rd person | ∅ | (...-əlx) |
Possessive case
Simple possessives within Okanagan are predominantly a result of prefixation and circumfixation on a verb. However, Okanagan uses simple possessives as aspect forms on the verb in very complex ways. This practice is predominantly seen in Southern interior Salish languages.[27]
| Possessive | Example | Use | Morphological process | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st SG | inkilx | in-kilx | prefix | my-hand |
| 2nd SG | ankilx | an-kilx | prefix | your-hand |
| 3rd SG | iʔ kilxs | iʔ⟩kilx⟨s | circumfix | his/her⟩hand⟨ |
| 1st PL | iʔ kilxtət | iʔ⟩kilx⟨tət | circumfix | Our⟩hand⟨ |
| 2nd PL | iʔ kilxəmp | iʔ⟩kilx⟨əmp | circumfix | Your.PL⟩hand⟨ |
| 3rd PL | iʔ kilxsəlx | iʔ⟩kilx⟨səlx | circumfix | Their⟩hand⟨ |
Where prefixation occurs with -in / -an in the 1st and 2nd person singular, /n/ may undergo deletion as below:
in-
1sg.POSS-
s-
NOM-
xʷuy
go
-tan
-INST
"They are my tracks."
an-
2sg.POSS-
kɬ-
to be
tkɬmilxʷ
-woman
"She is your wife to be."
Ergative case
In the case of verbs, Okanagan morphology handles transitivity in various ways. The first is a set of rules for transitive verbs that only have a single direct object (monotransitive). For the ergative case, there are two variants of person markers: a stressed and an unstressed.
| Stressed | Unstressed | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st SG | -ín | -n |
| 2nd SG | -íxʷ | -xʷ |
| 3rd SG | -ís | -s |
| 1st PL | -ím | -m |
| 2nd PL | -ip | -p |
| 3rd PL | -ísəlx | -səlx |
The stem: c'k-ən-t is the equivalent of the transitive verb 'count.'
| Example | Use | Translation | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st SG | c̓kəntin | c'k-ən-t-ín | I count it |
| 2nd SG | c̓kəntixʷ | c'k-ən-t-íxʷ | You count it |
| 3rd SG | c̓kəntis | c'k-ən-t-ís | S/he counts it |
| 1st PL | c̓kəntim | c'k-ən-t-ím | We count it |
| 2nd PL | c̓kəntip | c'k-ən-t-íp | You (PL) count it |
| 3rd PL | c̓kəntisəlx | c'k-ən-t-ísəlx | They count it |
wikn̓t (see it) is an example of a strong -nt- transitive past/present verb, with 'XX' identifying non-occurring combinations and '--' identifying semantic combinations which require the reflexive suffix -cut-.
| Transitive inflection |
Experiencer | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | ||||||||
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 3 | ||||
| Executor | Sg | 1 | -- | wikn̓tsn̓ | wikn̓ | XX | wikłəm̓n̓ | wikn̓əl̓x | |
| 2 | kʷuʔ wikn̓txʷ | -- | wikn̓txʷ | kʷuʔ wikn̓txʷ | XX | wikn̓txʷəl̓x | |||
| 3 | kʷuʔ wiks | wikn̓ts | wiks | kʷuʔ wikn̓tm̓ | wikłəm̓s | wiksəl̓x | |||
| Pl | 1 | XX | wikn̓tst | wikn̓tm̓ | -- | wikłəm̓t | wikn̓tm̓əl̓x | ||
| 2 | kʷuʔ wikn̓tp | XX | wikn̓tp | kʷuʔ wikn̓tp | -- | wikn̓tpəl̓x | |||
| 3 | kʷuʔ wiksəl̓x | wikn̓tsəl̓x | wiksəl̓x | kʷuʔ wikn̓tm̓əl̓x | wikłəm̓səl̓x | wikn̓tm̓əl̓x | |||
Accusative case
There are two sets of verb affixes each containing two members that dictate the composition of a verb. The first set is composed of the affixes -nt-, and -ɬt-. The second set is composed of -st- and x(i)t- where 'i' is a stressed vowel.
The major difference between two sets is how they incorporate affixes to remain grammatically correct. In the case of the -nt-, -ɬt- group, all particles and suffixes joining onto the stem and suffix of the verb will be identical for both. The -nt- affix connects to the stem of a transitive verb via suffixation. The suffix -nt- can only make reference to two persons: an actor and a primary goal.
q̓y̓əntin q'y'-ənt-in (I write something)
The -ɬt- affix is the ditransitive counterpart of -nt- and works in much the same. The difference between the two is that it refers to three persons: an actor, and two other actors or goals. Furthermore, -ɬt- is further differentiated from its ditransitive cousin -x(i)t- because it does not require a clitic to be a part of the verb.
In contrast to this group, -st- and -x(i)t- operate by unique rules. The -st- affix, much like its counterpart must be added to a verb stem by means of suffixation, it is also transitive, and refers to an actor and a primary goal, but it implies a reference to a third person, or a secondary goal without explicitly stating it.
q̓y̓əstin q'y'-əst-in. (I write it [for myself])
The -x(i)t- ditransitive affix shares all of the features of -ɬt- with the sole exception that it requires a clitic to be attached to front of the verb stem. The reason for the clitic in Okanagan is to add emphasis or focus on the second object, whereas -ɬt- makes no distinction.[28]
Predicates and arguments
Each clause in Okanagan can be divided into two parts: inflected predicates which are required for every sentence, and optional arguments. Okanagan allows a maximum of two arguments per sentence construction. These are marked by pronominal markers on the predicate. Each argument is introduced to the sentence via an initial determiner; the only exception to initial determiners is in the case of proper names which do not need determiners to introduce them. Predicates may be of any lexical category. There may be additional arguments added to a sentence in Okanagan via complementizers. Okanagan is unique among the majority of Salish languages for the inclusion of the complementizer.[27]
Obliques
Okanagan has one oblique marker that serves adapts it to several different functions depending upon the context in which it is used. The oblique marker 't' can be used to mark the object of an intransitive verb, as in the case below.
't' may also mark the agent in a passive construction, and it may be used to mark the ergative agent of transitive verbs. Finally, the oblique 't' may be used to mark functions including time and instrument:
't' may also coincide with the determiner 'iʔ' in the case of instrumentals and passive agents:
tʕapəntís
shoot-DIR-3SG.ERG
[iʔ
DET
[t
OBL
swlwlmínk]
gun
].
He shot it with a gun.
Complements
There are a number of complements available to Okanagan to clarify its predicates; among these are positional complements, which merely indicate the place of a predicate, and a variety of marked complements, used to express further meaning through a series of particles.[30]
The first of the marked complements is the prefix yi. For the most part, yi is an optional complement that is used in definite cases with the exception of cases when a proper noun is used. In such cases, the yi prefix is not allowed. When yi is used it refers to a definite referent.[30]
wikən yiʔ sqilxʷ "I saw the/those people." The sequential complements are composed of the particles ɬ and ɬa. ɬa conveys temporal sequence while ɬ represents a subordinate element.
way̓ x̌ast ɬ kʷ cxʷuy̓ "It's good if/that you come."
way̓ x̌ast ɬa kʷ cxʷuy̓ "It will be good when/after you come."
Okanagan also contains a number of locational complements which refer to when or where something happened, serving as a point of reference. The l and the variant lə particles are used to tie a predicate to a time or place.[30]
xʷuy̓ lə sənkʷəkʷəʔac. "He went in the night"
Ablative complements in Okanagan come in the form of the tl particle. Along with directional complements, k̓ and k̓l, Okanagan speakers can indicate motion.[30] The ablative complement tl only serves to indicate 'moving away from.' For instance, in the sentence below, the ablative is 'from (across the ocean).'
Kʷ scutxx tl sk̓ʷətikənx "Were you saying [that he is] from Seattle?"
The directional complement's two particles represent both direction towards something, and direction towards a specific location. k signifies movement towards something:
k̓ incitxʷ "to my house" (not towards it)
The k̓l particle modifies this sentence so that it specifies the house as the location to which the subject must move. k̓əl incitxʷ "To my house" (there specifically)
Verb classification
Verbs may react in multiple ways when a suffix is attached to the root stem of the word. Below are a number of ways in which intransitive roots are modified.[24]
- -t can indicate a natural characteristic of the root
- c̓ik̓ "burn"
- c̓ik̓t "burned"
- -lx indicates the subject is engaged in an activity
- qiclx "run"
- -ils expresses state of mind.
- nk̓wpils "lonely"
- -p expresses lack of a subject's control
- kmap "darkening"
Transitives:
- -n involves action upon an object by a subject
- kʷuʔ caʔntis "he hit me"
- -s involves action or state resulting from an activity.
- kʷu cˀaistixʷ
- -cut indicates when the action of a subject is directed toward oneself.
- tarqncut "kick oneself"
- Transitive stems without person markings indicate imperatives
- nlk̓ipnt "open it"
- Intransitives can express an imperative via the -x suffix:
- xʷuyx "go"
Space, time, and modality
The Okanagan system relies heavily on its affixes to demonstrate tense, space, and time. Below are demonstrated various affixes that attach to roots to encode meaning.
The following two examples are only possible in the -n transitive paradigm:[24]
ks- unrealized action ikstxt̓ám "I'm going to look after him"
səc- past perfect ˁi-səc-txt'-am "I've been looking after him."
The following examples are for intransitives.
-k Unrealized: expresses an intentional future action or state. (I am going to...) Kn kʷal̓t " I'm warm"
-aʔx Continuative: Action or state that is in progress kn scpútaʔx "I am celebrating"
Directional prefixes
- ɬ- Movement back
- c- Movement toward speaker
- kɬ- down, and under[24]
Prepositional case-markings for oblique objects
- tl̓ from, source.
- k̓l to, at, goal, recipient, dative.
- k̓ for, benefactive.
- l on, locative.
- nˁəɬ with, comitative.
- ˁit with, by, instrumental[24]
