2026 Iran war

United States relations with Iran

A US and UK-backed coup d'état in 1953 deposed the democratically elected Iranian prime minister Mohammad Mosaddegh due to his nationalization of the oil industry and strengthened the rule of the Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.^[97][98][99] Resentment of the Shah's deference to Western interests and his autocratic rule led to the 1979 revolution in which he was overthrown,^[97][100] after which Iran became an Islamic republic, severed diplomatic ties with the United States and Israel, and held the American embassy staff hostage for over a year,^{[97][101][102]} until an agreement was reached according to which the US may no longer interfere with Iranian affairs.

During the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s, the US provided economic, intelligence, and indirect military support to Iraq. In April 1988, as US-backed Iraq began to lose the war it had started, the US launched Operation Praying Mantis, to destroy Iran's navy.^[103] In this period, Iran began to engage in proxy conflicts in the region, backing Hezbollah against Israel in Lebanon. In the 2000s, Iran began supporting militias fighting the US in Iraq. These proxies became part of an informal Axis of Resistance committed primarily to countering the influence of the US and Israel in the Middle East. The conflict between the US and Iran became direct in January 2020 when President Trump, during his first term, ordered the assassination of Qasem Soleimani, commander of the Quds Force.^[97][104]

Tensions between Iran and the US and Israel further escalated following the October 7 attacks on Israel and the start of the Gaza war in 2023, during which Israel weakened Iranian-backed militias across the Middle East, including Hamas in Gaza,^[j] Hezbollah, and others. Israeli strikes on the Iranian consulate in Damascus and the Assassination of Ismail Haniyeh in Iran were met with strikes on Israel in April and October.

Israel waged the Twelve-Day War on Iran in June 2025, which included an American airstrike aimed at destroying Iran's nuclear facilities.^[107]

Iran nuclear issue

Iran's AMAD Project was suspended pursuant to Ali Khamenei's fatwa against nuclear weapons in 2003. Khamenei, the supreme leader of Iran at the time and one of the world's most senior Shiite religious leaders, issued his religious ruling banning the development of nuclear weapons of any kind.^[108][109] Iran has said it is not seeking nuclear weapons, and that its enrichment efforts are to generate nuclear power for civilian use.^[110] Some UK and US analysts concluded Iran is pursuing a strategy of nuclear hedging.^[111] UN Security Council (UNSC) concerns about the nuclear program of Iran from 2006^[k] were solved by the creation of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) in 2015.^[115]

The US withdrew from the JCPOA in 2018^[116][100] and re-imposed sanctions on Iran, as part of a US turn toward the use of force rather than diplomacy in its relations with Iran. The first Trump administration adopted a "maximum pressure" strategy.^[117] The Biden administration did not relax the economic sanctions against Iran, and instead implemented more measures.^[118] The second Trump administration reimposed the "maximum pressure" approach on Iran.^[119][100] Secretary of the Treasury Scott Bessent labelled the collapse of the Iranian currency in December 2025 as the "grand culmination" of this strategy.^[120][121]

The Defense Intelligence Agency concluded in 2025 it would be a decade before Iran would be able to gain the technical skill to produce an arsenal of missiles that could reach the United States;^[122] the United States Department of Defense estimated Iran's nuclear program had been set back by two years by its June 2025 strikes on Iranian nuclear sites.^[123] In January 2026, US and European officials said Washington had presented Iran with three core demands, one of which was a permanent end to all uranium enrichment.^[124]

At the State of the Union Address in late February 2026, President Trump stated that Iran had restarted its nuclear program and was developing missiles capable of striking the US.^[125] Days later, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) discovered that Iran had hidden highly enriched uranium in an underground facility that was undamaged in the previous round of fighting.^[126][127] The IAEA said that it had no evidence that Iran has an organized nuclear weapons program or is building an atomic bomb,^{[128][129][130]} but could not be sure that Iran's broader nuclear program was "exclusively peaceful" at the time of reportage as the agency was denied access.^[131]

Anti-government protests in Iran and initial US deployments

Beginning in late December 2025, massive nationwide anti-government protests erupted in Iran. Originally driven by discontent over the economic crisis, they escalated into explicit calls for the overthrow of the Islamic Republic government. The protests became the largest in scale since the 1979 revolution.^[132] The Iranian government responded with massacres of protesters, with the deadliest incidents occurring on 8 and 10 January 2026.^[133] The US-based Human Rights Activists News Agency estimated the death toll at 7,000, the Iranian government said it was 3,117, while various non-government affiliated Iranian health officials gave a figure of 32,000 deaths.^[134][135]

On 2 January 2026, Trump threatened a "lock and loaded" military intervention in Iran if the government decided to kill peaceful protesters.^[136] On 13 January, he expressed support for Iranian anti-government protesters and pledged that "help is on the way" for them,^[137] and later, on 23 January, Trump announced that a US "armada" was heading to the Middle East, including the aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln and several guided-missile destroyers.^[138][139] On 13 February, Trump ordered the aircraft carrier USS Gerald R. Ford and its supporting warships to sail to the Middle East.^[140]

2026 nuclear negotiations

On 6 February 2026, Iran and the US held indirect nuclear negotiations in Oman's capital, Muscat. Iran emphasized that progress depends on consultations back in capitals.^[141] A second round of nuclear talks was scheduled in Geneva.^[141] Between 15 and 20 February, Iran increased its oil exports to three times the normal rate, and reduced its oil storage.^[142]

Just before the strikes began, on 27 February 2026, Oman's Foreign Minister Badr Al-Busaidi said a "breakthrough" had been reached and Iran had agreed both to never stockpile enriched uranium and to full verification by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA);^[143] furthermore, Iran had agreed to irreversibly downgrade its current enriched uranium to "the lowest level possible". Al-Busaidi said peace was "within reach".^[144][143] Talks were expected to resume on 2 March.^[143] After the US and Israel attacked Iran, Al-Busaidi said that he was dismayed and that "active and serious negotiations" had been undermined.^[145]

US Middle East envoy Steve Witkoff said Iran had begun recent nuclear talks by insisting on its "inalienable right" to enrich uranium, rejecting a US proposal for zero enrichment, and even boasting that its 460 kilograms of 60% enriched uranium could produce 11 nuclear bombs.^[146][147] Diplomats with knowledge of the Iran talks said Witkoff undermined the negotiations by misrepresenting the key exchange, stating that the US negotiators misunderstood the Iranian proposal, including Iran's offer to suspend uranium enrichment for several years and why Iran did not trust the US offer of nuclear fuel fuel supplies.^[148]

US military buildup

On 14 February, the US publicly began preparing its campaign.^[149] By 19 February the US buildup was described as the largest in the Middle East since the 2003 invasion of Iraq.^[150] Netanyahu called Trump on 23 February to inform him about Khamenei's upcoming meeting with his top advisors and its location.^[151][152] On 24 February, during the State of the Union Address, Trump accused Iran of reviving efforts to build nuclear weapons and advanced missile capabilities that could threaten the US, Europe, and US bases overseas. He warned that the US was prepared to act if necessary.^[153] American intelligence reports suggested that alleged threats of long-range Iranian ballistic missiles were unfounded, with such capabilities requiring up until 2035 should Iran have decided to pursue the project.^[154]

On 25 February 2026, Iranian foreign minister Abbas Araghchi stated that a "historic" agreement with the United States to avert military conflict was "within reach" ahead of renewed talks in Geneva. Araghchi emphasized that diplomacy must be prioritized to avoid further escalation. Despite high tensions and a significant US military buildup in the region, Araghchi reiterated on social media that Iran holds a "crystal clear" position against developing nuclear weapons, while defending its right to peaceful nuclear technology.^[155]

According to The Wall Street Journal, US senator Lindsey Graham made the most compelling case to Trump for an assault on Iran.^[156] According to The Washington Post, crown prince of Saudi Arabia Mohammed bin Salman had multiple phone calls with Trump urging him to attack Iran,^[157] and Trump's decision to attack Iran came after the Saudi Arabian and Israeli governments lobbied him repeatedly to make the move.^[158]

The Guardian reported a few days before the attack that the decision would be determined by the outcome of a meeting in Geneva, in which the US would be led by Steve Witkoff and Jared Kushner.^[159]

On the morning of the attack, some of Iran's top military and intelligence leaders, including Khamenei, were gathered together in the national security council offices for meetings.^[160] US and Israeli military intelligence officers identified that the senior Iranian leaders would gather at three meetings that could be struck simultaneously.^[161] Khamenei and his officials were above ground and in broad daylight. It is unknown how US and Israeli leadership were aware of their exact location.^[162]

A few days before the attack, senior advisors for the Trump administration said it would be better if Israel strikes Iran first, so that the United States would have a better justification for going to war after Iran retaliates.^[163] US secretary of state Marco Rubio later disclosed that the initial US attack on Iran was due to an Israeli intention to attack Iranian leadership, which would have jeopardized US forces in the region.^[164] He also stated that United States may have followed Israel into the conflict;^[165] Trump disagreed.^[166]

First week (28 February – 6 March)

On 27 February at 3:38 p.m. EST (11:08 p.m. IRST), Donald Trump, traveling on Air Force One to Corpus Christi, Texas, gave the order to proceed with Operation Epic Fury.^[167][160] US missiles, drones, and Israeli fighter jets began striking Iran the next day, around 9:45 a.m. IRST (1:15 a.m. EST).^[168][169]

The attack coincided with the beginning of the holy month of Ramadan, when Muslim people practice fasting between sunrise and sunset.^[170]

The operation was codenamed Operation Roaring Lion^[m] by Israel.^[171] The Israeli Air Force (IAF) said that it had struck 500 military targets in western and central Iran, including air defenses and missile launchers, using about 200 fighter jets, in the largest combat sortie in its history.^[172] Iranian naval vessels were also targeted.^[173] Israel later said its initial strikes used over 1,200 bombs in 24 hours.^[174] A US official said dozens of US strikes were carried out by planes based around the Middle East and from one or more aircraft carriers.^[175]

According to Iran International, quoting the Iranian Students' News Agency, thousands of Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) personnel, including several senior officials,^[176] were killed or wounded^[vague] as several military bases were attacked.^[177] Several strikes hit Tehran's Pasteur Street district, home to Ali Khamenei, the presidential palace, and the National Security Council.^[178][179] It reported that the port city of Bushehr had also been struck; however, it was unclear whether the nuclear reactor had sustained any damage.^[177] On 2 March, U.N. nuclear watchdog chief Rafael Grossi said there was no evidence to indicate that the US-Israeli strikes had hit nuclear facilities.^[180]

The strikes were coupled with cyberattacks on Iranian infrastructure, media, and phone apps, including the BadeSaba Calendar prayer app, with messages calling on Iranians to rise up against their government.^{[181][182][183]} The cyberattacks resulted in a near-total internet blackout in Iran, lasting over 60 hours with connectivity dropping to as low as 1–4% of normal levels, disrupting government communications, state media, and public services.^[184][182]

Israeli military officials said months-long planning preceded their strikes, allowing them to pinpoint their targets, attain "tactical surprise", and gain US support.^[185] Attacking during the morning, rather than at night which was when most of Israel's previous attacks on Iran took place, added to the element of surprise.^[162] After the strikes began, Israel declared a state of emergency, citing expectation of an Iranian retaliation, and warned its citizens to remain in protected areas.^[186][187] Israel called up 20,000 reservists in addition to the 50,000 already on duty.^[188] The Israeli Ministry of Health moved its hospital operations underground.^[189] According to Iran International, Israel warned Iranian civilians residing near military industries and infrastructure to evacuate immediately.^[177]

At 2:30 a.m. EST on 28 February, Donald Trump released an eight-minute video statement on Truth Social, saying that the purpose of the US strikes in Iran was effectively^[vague] regime change. Trump said that Iran's "menacing activities" endangered the US and its allies. He cited the Iran hostage crisis, support for proxies such as Hamas and Hezbollah, and its killings of protesters.^[190] Trump and Benjamin Netanyahu both warned of the potential threat of nuclear weapons in Iran and called on the Iranian people to overthrow their government.^[190][191] The Times of Israel reported that Defense Minister Israel Katz, had labeled the strikes a "pre-emptive attack" intended to "remove threats to the State of Israel".^[186] Iran rejected claims that it intended to attack the United States, citing the aggressive posture of the US armed forces as evidence.^[192]

Iranian forces reacted within hours by launching missiles in an operation it named Operation True Promise IV.^[n][o] The quicker response relative to that of the Twelve-Day War suggests a change in Iran's command structure.^{[193][194][195]}

Iran struck Israeli targets in Tel Aviv and Haifa^[195] as well as multiple countries throughout the Persian Gulf region.^[196] Attacks were reported across the Gulf States. Major targets included Bahrain's capital Manama,^[197][198] Kuwait International Airport, the United Arab Emirates' capital Abu Dhabi,^[199][200] Riyadh and Eastern Province in Saudi Arabia,^[201] and Erbil International Airport and the US Consulate General in Erbil in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.^[202] Iran reported striking the US bases of Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar, Ali Al Salem Air Base in Kuwait,^[203] Al Dhafra Air Base in the UAE, and the US Navy Fifth Fleet headquarters in Bahrain.^[204] Local sources said Iran used Shahed drones, which are among the weapons most used by Iran and its proxies, including Hamas and Hezbollah.^[205]

According to an analysis in Reuters, by sending missiles at Gulf states, Iran has caused the Gulf states to realize that Iran poses a threat to them, and could thus cause them to support the US-Israel strikes.^[206] Former CIA director David Petraeus echoed these sentiments, stating that Iran's targeting of other Gulf states was likely a strategic error that could pull additional countries into the war.^[207] Despite President Pezeshkian's apology to the neighboring states for the strikes and order to the armed forces to stop the strikes, the Revolutionary Guards continued with the attacks, exposing a leadership rift within the Iranian government.^[208]

Iran's top security official, Ali Larijani, announced the Interim Leadership Council on 1 March and accused the US and Israel of trying to dismantle Iran. He warned "secessionist groups" of severe consequences if they take action.^[209] Trump relayed to NBC News that "a large amount of leadership" in Iran had been killed.^[210] Israel launches a new wave of strikes against Iranian targets.^[209]

Iran launched missiles and drones on Israel, UAE, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia.^{[211][better source needed][212][better source needed][213]} The United Kingdom initially reported there were strikes against Cyprus,^[214][215] but later confirmed that there were not.^[216] Two oil tankers, the Palau-flagged Skylight and the Marshall Islands-flagged MKD VYOM, were targeted off the coast of Oman.^{[217][218][219]} Shipping through the Strait of Hormuz slowed to a standstill,^[220] with 150 freight ships, including many oil tankers stalled.^[221]

To avert further Iranian strikes, the E3 (the UK, France, and Germany) resolved to back, if needed, "proportionate military defensive measures" against drones and ballistic missiles, signaling the potential for direct involvement.^[222] British prime minister Keir Starmer said that US can use British bases for "defensive" strikes on Iran^[223] and disclosed that Ukrainian and other specialists would aid Gulf efforts to foil Iranian drone strikes.^[224] CNN reported that Crown Prince Salman, with US backing, vowed to employ military force against further Iranian incursions, calling Iranian strikes "cowardly" due to Saudi airspace being closed to US and Israeli attackers.^[225] On 1 March, Trump announced that the US had accepted an Iranian proposal to further negotiations.^[226] Trump later said the US operations were to be completed within a four-week timetable in an interview with the Daily Mail.^[227] However, Ali Larijani subsequently ruled out talks.^[228]

On 2 March, the US embassy in Kuwait was struck and subsequently closed indefinitely; no casualties were reported.^[229][230] The US-flagged tanker Stena Imperative and the Honduras-flagged tanker Athe Nova were also struck.^[231] A senior IRGC official who is an advisor to the IRGC commander said he would set fire onto any ship coming through the Strait of Hormuz, and added that no oil will leave the area.^[232]

Qatar shot down two Iranian Su-24 bombers, making it the first nation to shoot down an Iranian aircraft in the conflict.^[233] The Qatari Ministry of Defense announced that Ras Laffan Industrial City and Mesaieed Industrial Area were struck by two Iranian drones.^[234] On 6 March, it was reported that according to satellite imagery analysis by both Bloomberg and the Energy Economics and Society Research Institute in Tokyo, Ras Laffan, the main gas facility in Qatar, appeared to have not been damaged before the "unprecedented shutdown" which sent fuel prices higher.^[235]

The United States and Israel attacked the Natanz Nuclear Facility^[236] and the Khatam-al-Anbia and Gandhi hospitals.^[237] A friendly fire incident took place when the pilot of an F/A-18 of the Kuwait Air Force shot down three US F-15 fighters.^{[238][239][240][230]} According to Saudi-owned Al Arabiya, in the evening, Israeli special forces and Mossad operatives carried out a ground operation inside Iran; no additional information was reported. Israeli authorities did not issue a response to the report by 3 March. No independent news outlet has confirmed these allegations.^[241]

Israel and Hezbollah exchanged strikes against one another.^[242] Hezbollah began firing rockets and missiles on Israel, in what they said was retaliation for the killing of Khamenei^[243][244] Hezbollah later claimed that the attack was a "defensive act" after over a year of Israeli attacks despite a truce.^[245] It added that it restarted fighting to force Israel to stop its aggression and evacuate from seized Lebanese territories, emphasizing that the move was unrelated to the war.^[246]> Lebanon banned military activities by Hezbollah after the attacks.^[247] An IDF spokesperson issued an emergency statement stating that the attack is to be considered "an official declaration of war by Hezbollah", vowing to "neutralize" the threat.^[242] Israel struck southern Lebanon,^{[248][53][249]} Beirut, and the Beqaa Valley.^[242] The IDF said that it killed the head of Hezbollah's intelligence headquarters Hussein Makled in the strikes.^[250][251] In Lebanon, the IDF killed Adham Adnan al-Othman, the head of Palestinian Islamic Jihad's armed wing, Al-Quds Brigades, in Lebanon.^[252]

The Royal Air Force station at Akrotiri, Cyprus, was targeted by a drone strike around midnight local time, with one causing minor damage.^{[253][254][255][256]} Another strike on Cyprus led to Greece announcing that they would deploy frigates and F-16s to defend Cyprus from any further strikes by Iran.^[257] Later in the day IRGC general Sardar Jabbari commented that there was a US presence on the island of Cyprus and that Iran planned to strike the island "with such intensity that the Americans will be forced to leave".^[258][259] The pro-Iran militant group Guardians of the Blood Brigade claimed responsibility for attacks on the US Victory Base near Baghdad International Airport and Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq.^{[53][260][261]} The Islamic Resistance in Iraq claimed responsibility for over 23 drone strikes on US assets in Erbil.^[262]

On 3 March, US and Israeli strikes reportedly destroyed the Supreme National Security Council (SNSC) headquarters,^[263] the Expediency Discernment Council building in Tehran,^[264] and what Israeli officials described as an underground nuclear weapons facility called Min Zadai.^[265] The proximity of these strikes to the Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant (about 12 km (7.5 mi) away) prompted the Russian agency Rosatom to suspend construction on new units and evacuate non-essential staff due to a loss of communication with Iranian officials.^[266]

US officials said US forces severely damaged Iran's naval capabilities, mainly in the Gulf of Oman, where several Iranian warships have reportedly been destroyed and key bases hit.^[267][268] Debris from an airstrike damaged Golestan Palace, a UNESCO World Heritage Site,^[269] causing UNESCO to issue a statement that damaging UNESCO property is against international law.^[270]

Israel Katz authorized a ground invasion of Lebanon on 3 March.^[271][272] They were later followed by a ground incursion in southern Lebanon with forces from the 91st Division with the goal to stablish a "security layer" for the Israeli residents of northern settlements against Hezbollah, expecting to destroy their infrastructure in the Israel-Lebanon border. The Lebanese government reported that such Israeli preventive attacks reached Kfarkela and Qouzah, provoking the Lebanese army to do a redeployment from newly established border posts amid escalating Israeli activity in violation of the 2024 Israel–Lebanon ceasefire agreement.^[273] Israel also reported that it killed Daoud Alizadeh, the commander of the Quds Force's Lebanon branch, in Tehran.^[274]

Western diplomats and other sources told The Jerusalem Post that Qatar had struck Iran after Iran had attempted to strike Doha's airport and Qatar shot down two Iranian Su-24 bombers;^[275] Channel 12 also reported Qatari strikes.^[276] Qatari Foreign Ministry spokesperson Majed al-Ansari vigorously denied the accusation that Qatar had joined the "campaign targeting Iran".^[277]

An IRGC general warned it would hit all economic hubs in the Middle East,^[278][279] and Abbas Araghchi said that any defensive European military involvement would be considered an act of war.^[280][281]

On 4 March, US secretary of state Marco Rubio announced that the US-Israeli attacks on Iran would increase in their intensity.^[16] Israel attacks hit the Basij headquarters.^[282] Mojtaba Khamenei survived an airstrike.^[283] Qatar arrested ten individuals for operating as a cell of the IRGC in Qatari territory, collecting data on military infrastructure, with some trained to use drones.^[284] The IDF announced that an F-35I "Adir" shot down a Russian-made Iranian Yak-130 fighter jet over Tehran, the first time that an F-35 has ever shot down a manned fighter jet in air-to-air combat and the first time the Israeli Air Force shot down an aircraft since 1985.^[285]

Iran launched strikes against the Al Udeid Air Base^[286] and Aramco's Ras Tanura oil refining facility.^[287] The United States ordered the evacuation of non-essential workers in Cyprus in anticipation of Iranian strikes and issued a travel warning for the country.^[288][289]

Hezbollah launched anti-tank fire in Southern Lebanon.^[290][291]

A ballistic missile launched from Iranian territory was intercepted by NATO integrated air defense systems as it entered Turkish airspace, marking a significant escalation in the regional conflict.^[292] Turkey asserted its right to self-defense after the missile landed in Dörtyol, Hatay Province,^[293] and NATO secretary general Mark Rutte stated that the alliance was committed to defending Turkey.^[294] In a diplomatic response, Iran officially denied intentionally targeting Turkey, attributing the event to a "technical anomaly". Despite these denials, the potential invocation of NATO's Article 4 became a focal point of urgent discussions between Turkish foreign minister Hakan Fidan and allied leadership, as Turkey sought to reinforce the alliance's collective defense posture in the face of further aerial threats.^[295]

An Iranian Navy frigate, IRIS Dena, was sunk in the Indian Ocean by United States Navy submarine USS Charlotte, about 40 nautical miles (74 km; 46 mi) south of Galle, Sri Lanka. The vessel was returning to Iran following its participation in the International Fleet Review 2026 and the multilateral Exercise MILAN at Visakhapatnam, India.^{[296][297][298]} The exercise required participating ships not to carry any ammunition, and the US likely knew the Dena was defenseless, since it also sent a maritime patrol aircraft to participate.^[299] It was the first ship sunk by a submarine in active combat since ARA General Belgrano was sunk by the British during the Falklands War, and the first by an American submarine since World War II.^[p][302] The ship issued a distress signal at dawn, prompting an immediate search and rescue operation by the Sri Lanka Navy and Sri Lanka Air Force. The Sri Lanka Navy rescued 32 people and transported them to the Galle National Hospital, where they received medical treatment for exhaustion and injuries related to the blast; they also recovered 87 bodies.^[303][304] According to the Iranian army, 104 Iranians were killed and 32 were injured from this attack.^[305] It was also reported that the landing ship IRIS Lavan with a crew of 183 sailors had sought refuge and been interned at Kochi, India, late evening on 4 March, following the attack on Dena.^{[306][307][308]}

Lebanon's Islamic Group, known as Jamaa Islamiya (JI), said its headquarters were destroyed by the IDF. Al-Ain News corroborated this.^[309]

The government of Azerbaijan said on 5 March that two drones from Iran struck Azerbaijan's Nakhchivan exclave^[310] damaging an airport and injuring two civilians.^[311] Azerbaijan withdrew their diplomats from Iran^[312] and promised a military response.^[313] Iran's foreign minister Abbas Araghchi suggested it was an Israeli false flag attack,^[314] Azer News reported that a Telegram channel affiliated with the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps claimed responsibility for the strike in Nakhchivan.^[315] Alarms went off in the UK's military bases on Cyprus twice during the visit of UK defence minister John Healey, causing widespread panic and self-evacuations in the local population, but the bases confirmed in both instances that the missiles were not headed toward Cyprus.^[316] Keir Starmer confirmed that the UK's bases on Cyprus would be used to defend the airspace of Jordan from Iranian drones,^[317][318] while Italy, the Netherlands and Spain confirmed that they would be sending warships to defend Cyprus.^{[319][320][321]} Ireland stated that they would be willing to protect Cyprus and join the European defense coalition that had mobilized around the island if requested.^[322] The IDF killed Hamas official Wassim Attallah al-Ali in Beddawi, Lebanon.^[323]

Trump said on 6 March that there are "no time limits" for how long the war will continue for,^[324] and Hegseth stated that the war has "only just begun".^[325] Three Ghanaian peacekeepers enrolled in UNIFIL were hit by a missile and wounded in Southern Lebanon.^[326] The Iranian tanker IRIS Bushehr was interned by the Sri Lanka Navy, marking the first instance of a warship being interned in a neutral country since World War II.^[327]

In Azerbaijan, an alleged Iranian-linked terrorist plot was prevented by local law enforcement. They were accused of plotting to destroy the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan oil pipeline, the Israeli embassy, and synagogues in Baku.^[328][329] A trial began on the same day, during which the accused were identified as being part of a cell of the Islamic State known as "Vilayati-Khorasan" and the IRGC.^[330][331]

Second week (7–13 March)

On 7 March, the US sent a third aircraft carrier, USS George H. W. Bush, to the Middle East.^{[332][333][334]} The British aircraft carrier HMS Prince of Wales was placed on advanced readiness to defend British interests in the region.^[335]

Pezeskhian told reporters on 7 March that Iran would stop striking neighbors from 7 March onwards unless an attack originated from there.^[336] Despite this, Dubai International Airport was later attacked by Iranian drones.^[337] NDTV reported that following a week's hostilities, Iran might only have around one thousand ballistic missiles left.^[338]

On 8 March, Khamenei's second son, Mojtaba, was designated as Iran's new supreme leader.^[339]

On 8 March, US Central Command posted a message on X in Persian and Arabic which "strongly urge[s] civilians in Iran to stay at home" and alleging that "[t]he Iranian regime is knowingly endangering innocent lives by using heavily populated civilian areas to conduct military operations, including launching one-way attack drones and ballistic missiles".^[340]

Israeli airstrikes hit some of Iran's oil storage facilities, killing four people.^[341] Strikes on fuel depots near Tehran caused a "river of fire" to pour out along the streets in the surrounding area,^[342] and the city became engulfed in a cloud of thick black smoke, causing toxic acidic black rain to fall in the surrounding area.^[343] Residents were advised by Iranian authorities to stay indoors, wear masks when outside, and conserve food and fuel.^[344]

Kuwait reported that two of its officers were killed while performing duties.^[345][346] The Saudi Civil Defense agency said that a strike on a compound in Al-Kharj killed two people and injured 12 others.^[347] US Central Command announced the death of a seventh US service member from an Iranian attack.^[348]

The United Kingdom's Ministry of Defense confirmed that its forces had intercepted an Iranian drone headed towards Iraq. Additionally, the Ministry declared their intention to send a Merlin helicopter to the region to help aid in detecting future aerial threats.^[349]

According to the Iranian Red Crescent Society, a total of 65 schools and 32 medical facilities (such as hospitals and pharmacies) have been targeted since the war started, and more than 10,000 civilian sites have been damaged.^[350] On 9 March, NATO confirmed the interception of a second ballistic missile over Turkish air space,^[351] landing in the area of Gaziantep.^[352] Meanwhile, Turkey deployed six F-16s and air defence systems to Northern Cyprus to ensure its security.^[353]

Donald Trump claimed that "the war is very complete, pretty much", after speaking with Russian president Vladimir Putin,^[354] and said "we already won the war in many ways."^[355] Trump later went back on some of his comments during a press conference held later that day, supporting Defense Secretary Pete Hegseth in stating that the war was just the "beginning of building a new country" and that it would end "soon".^[356] However, Trump also said that the US will have the "most intense day" of strikes on Tuesday.^[357]

Following Syrian president Ahmed al-Sharaa's support for the Lebanon's objective to disarm Hezbollah,^[358] the group targeted Inkhil in Syria.^[359]

About a dozen B1-B bombers arrived at bases in Europe. 5 landed at the Fairford Royal Air Force base, UK, joining three B-52 bombers, while 3 others were redirected to Ramstein Air Base, Germany.^[360]

GPS jamming of uncertain origin has disrupted navigation of ships near the Strait of Hormuz, which may lead to disastrous accidents for oil tankers.^[361]

The United States Department of State (supported by Saudi Arabia)^[362] designated the Muslim Brotherhood branch in Sudan (a Sudanese Islamist organization) as a terrorist organization due to its nexus with the Axis of Resistance.^[363] Members of their militia fought alongside the IRGC due to the contacts established with the Al-Bara' ibn Malik Battalion during the Iranian intervention in Sudan.^[364]

On 10 March, a senior IRGC commander stated that Iran was only firing missiles with payloads of 1,000 kg or more.^[365] AFP reported that Iran's attacks were the "most intense and heaviest" since the start of the war.^[366] This shows a shift in tactics from saturating air defences to high-impact penetration strikes.^[365]

Following the Syrian presidency's support for the disarmament of Hezbollah and a campaign of mobilization by the Syrian army on the Lebanese border,^[358][367] shells from Lebanon landed in the town of Serghaya, 20 km (12 mi) from Damascus where the Syrian Armed Forces forces presided.^[368] The strikes were confirmed by the Operations Authority of the Syrian Army.^[369] Later in the day, Israel issued an urgent evacuation notice to southern suburbs of Beirut.^[370]

US admiral Brad Cooper reported that Iran's ballistic missile launch rate fell 90% from day one of the war and their drone launch rate fell 83%.^[371] Defense analyst AJ Jaff reported that the missile launch rate fell 92% (480 to 40) and the drone launch rate fell 92% (720 to 60).^[372]

Falak-ol-Aflak, a third-century Sassanian fortress, was damaged by Israeli-US strikes.^[373]

On 11 March, eleven B-1 and three B-52 US bombers were deployed to RAF Fairford in the UK, where long-range photography showed bombs being prepared for loading. This followed US war secretary Pete Hegseth's statement that it was the "most intense day of strikes inside Iran", though the targets of the mission remain unknown.^[374]

A branch of Bank Sepah in Tehran was hit by a strike, prompting the IRGC to warn that in the future, they could retaliate by striking US or Israeli banks in the region.^[375]

Iran apparently hit a US-based medical supply company with a cyber attack.^[376]

On 12 March, UNICEF reported that more than 1,100 children were injured or killed (200 reportedly killed in Iran, 91 in Lebanon, 4 in Israel, and 1 in Kuwait), hundreds of thousands displaced, and millions unable to attend schools from the violence of the war since it started. It also noted that these numbers will likely increase.^[377]

Iranian deputy intelligence minister Akbar Ghaffari was killed in an airstrike.^[378]

An Iranian attack set two oil tankers on fire off the Iraqi coast, killing one person and prompting Iraq to suspend all oil terminal operations.^[379]

The historical Safavid-era building of Rashk-e Jenan, also known as the Rashk Palace, was destroyed by direct US-Israeli strikes.^[380] Other buildings that were damaged according to Ruhollah Seyed al-Asgari, the deputy director of cultural heritage for Isfahan province, include Chehel Sotoun pavillion, the Rakib Khaneh Mansion, the Timurid Hall, the Ashraf Hall and the windows of Ali Qapu Palace.^[381] Many of the affected buildings and monuments were legally protected by the Blue Shield International,^[382] which called damaging such sites a war crime.^[383]

Six French soldiers were injured in a drone strike at a base in Mala Qara, Iraqi Kurdistan. French president Emmanuel Macron announced on 13 March that one French soldier was killed in the attack.^[384]

In Iraq, two US Air Force Boeing KC-135 tankers were involved in an incident. One of them crashed in Iraq, with an initial report of at least four fatalities, while the other was damaged but landed in Israel.^[385] This was the fourth US aircraft lost during the war.^[386] Subsequently, the US Central Command (CENTCOM) reported that all six crew members were confirmed to be dead.^[387] The planes were acknowledged to have crashed in Iraq during a refueling mission.^[388] Two aircraft were involved, with one going down while the other landed safely. Officials stated the incident was not caused by hostile or friendly fire.^{[388][389][390]}

On 13 March, to help deal with the economic costs of the war, the US temporarily lifted restrictions on the sale of Russian oil. However, oil prices have barely been affected by this.^[391]

Iran announced a coordinated offensive by IRGC Navy, the Iranian Army, and Hezbollah against Israel and US bases.^[392] Israel reported that 58 people have been hospitalized due to injuries following a missile strike.^[391] Iran again targeted Gulf countries with missiles and drones, causing oil prices to rise. Bahrain reported attacks on fuel tanks. Two people were injured when a "hostile drone" struck a residential building in Kuwait. The Kuwaiti authorities also stated that defense equipment and the country's main international airport were attacked, and six power lines were reported to have gone out of service. AFP reported that explosions were heard in downtown Dubai. At the same time, the British Maritime Trade Operations Agency said a container ship was attacked 35 nautical miles (65 kilometers) north of Jebel Ali in the UAE. According to Al Jazeera Arabic, sirens went off in every city across Jordan.^[393]

For the third time in the war ballistic missiles entered Turkish air space and were intercepted, with explosions heard in the proximity of the city of Adana as well as sirens from Incirlik Air Base.^[394]

Third week (14 March – present)

The US conducted a bombing raid on Kharg Island, Iran's oil export hub. Military forces were targeted while the oil infrastructure was not targeted "for reasons of decency" according to Trump. Oil prices have risen over 40 percent since the start of the war.^[395] According to CENTCOM, around 90 military targets were struck, while the island's oil infrastructure was not targeted.^[396] On 14 March Kata'ib Hezbollah security commander Abu Ali al-Askari was killed in an airstrike on Baghdad, according to the group.^[397]

The first two floors of the Royal Tulip Al-Rasheed Hotel in Baghdad's Green Zone were hit by a drone whilst hosting an European Union and Saudi Arabian delegation. The attack was not claimed by anyone, however, due to the proximity of a similiar attack that had happened 48 hours earlier on the US embassy in Baghdad, there were suspicions of it being an Iranian attack.^[398]

On 17 March, Israel launched a ground invasion of southern Lebanon. Defense Minister Israel Katz said the operation would be similar to the Gaza war, and suggested that Israel could occupy some Lebanese territory indefinitely.^[399] In a joint statement, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, and the UK said such an operation should be avoided.^[400]

Iran

Assassination of Ali Khamenei

Main article: Assassination of Ali Khamenei

On 28 February 2026, Ali Khamenei, the supreme leader of Iran, was assassinated. Early on 1 March, Iranian state media announced that Khamenei had been killed.^[403] The Fars News Agency, which is controlled by the IRGC, announced that Khamenei's daughter, son-in-law, grandchild, and daughter-in-law Zahra Haddad-Adel (wife of Mojtaba Khamenei, the new Supreme Leader, who survived by seconds according to leaked audio, which an official said was due to the Will of God^[404]) had also been killed in the strikes.^{[405][406][407]} The state declared 40 days of mourning.^[408] CIA assessments suggested that a hardliner from the IRGC would replace Khamenei.^[409]

Military and officials

Main article: List of Iranian officials killed during the 2026 Iran war

Minister of Defense Aziz Nasirzadeh

IRGC commander Mohammad Pakpour

Secretary of the Defense Council Ali Shamkhani

Head of the Military Office of the Supreme Leader Mohammad Shirazi

Chief of staff of the Armed Forces Abdolrahim Mousavi

Iranian defense minister Aziz Nasirzadeh and IRGC commander Mohammad Pakpour were killed by Israeli airstrikes.^[410][411] Iran International reported that Defence Council secretary Ali Shamkhani had been killed,^[412] along with four top Ministry of Intelligence officials.^[413] The IDF later stated that it had confirmed the deaths of seven Iranian security leaders, including Shamkhani, Nasirzadeh, and Pakpour.^[414]

Additional senior officials confirmed to have been killed are Salah Asadi, head of intelligence for Iran's emergency command, Mohammad Shirazi, head of the military office of Khamenei, head of the Organization of Defensive Innovation and Research (SPND) Hossein Jabal Amelian and former SPND head Reza Mozaffari Nia.^[177] On 1 March, chief of staff Abdolrahim Mousavi and former president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad were confirmed by Iranian state media to have also been killed by strikes.^[415][416] However, later reports stated that Ahmadinejad is alive, or at least that reports of his death cannot be confirmed.^[417]

CBS News reported that "an intelligence source and a military source told CBS News Saturday evening [28th February 2026]" that 40 Iranian officials had been killed in the strikes but that they were not "clear whether these officials were in one location or multiple locations".^[418][419] Iran's Foreign Ministry stated the military has lost control over several units, that are operating according to old general instructions.^[420] On 13 March, the Israeli military estimated that between 3,000-4,000 Iranian soldiers and commanders had been killed.^[421] On 14 March, the Hengaw Organization for Human Rights estimated that 4,400+ members of Iranian military forces had been killed in the attacks, up from 1,300+ on 2 March, 2,100+ on 4 March, and 3,900+ on 10 March.^[422]

United States

On 2 March, the US announced that US fatalities had risen to six, with four others seriously injured.^[457] Four of the victims have been identified, who are, according to CENTCOM, all members of the 103rd Expeditionary Sustainment Command, headquartered in Des Moines, Iowa.^[458] A single Iranian drone strike on a base in Kuwait was responsible for six US military fatalities.^[459] On 4 March, US Marine Corps lance corporal Kevin Melendez died in Saudi Arabia by non-hostile incident.^[460] Sgt. Benjamin N. Pennington, a soldier wounded during an attack in Saudi Arabia on 1 March, died from their injuries on 9 March.^[461] On 8 March, CENTCOM reported a National Guard soldier died from a "health-related incident in Kuwait on March 6 during a medical emergency". The guardsman was a former New York City Police Department officer, and state and city officials made statements paying tribute.^[462]

Six American military airmen were killed on 12 March when their KC-135 aerial refueling aircraft crashed in western Iraq while supporting US military operations during the war. CENTCOM said that the crash was not the result of hostile action and that it had resulted during an incident involving another US aircraft inside "friendly airspace". By 13 March, the US military publicly announced that about 140 American servicemen had been injured during the war.^[463]

Israel

The first connected Iranian airstrike targeted a building in Israel, leaving one Israeli civilian injured.^[464] Magen David Adom reported that Iran's initial attacks had left 89 injured, with three directly wounded and the rest indirectly, most of them civilians.^[465] On 28 February, a direct hit in Tel Aviv killed a civilian woman and injured 22 others, one seriously.^[466] On 1 March, an Iranian strike hit a synagogue and residential buildings in Beit Shemesh, killing nine people and injuring 49 others.^[467] On 9 March, two workers were killed in Yehud, outside of Tel Aviv, after being struck by submunitions from an Iranian missile equipped with a cluster bomb warhead while working outdoors at a construction site.^[468][469]

Israeli broadcaster Kan 11 reported that 90, 65, 25, and then 20 missiles were launched at Israel from Iran on each of the first four days of the war.^[470] Although the number of missiles in each volley has decreased, the missiles themselves have increased in size and impact.^[471] On 9 March, Israel said that Lebanon has made more attacks against them than Iran has over the past week.^[472]

Lebanon

At least 31 people were killed,^[473] 149 were wounded by Israeli strikes in Lebanon,^[16] including three additional paramedics according to Al Jazeera,^[474] and Lebanon states more than one million^[475] Lebanese nationals, corresponding to 1/6th of the tiny nation^[476], was displaced.^[305][477] Youssef Ragi, the Lebanese foreign minister, announced Lebanon's Council of Ministers decided to ban the military and security of Hezbollah, and called for them to hand over their weapons.^[478] Israel called for Lebanon to take action beyond mere statements,^[479] and Katz said that if they don't, then Israel will invade Lebanon and do this themselves.^[480] An NBC News analysis described Hezbollah as "significantly weakened".^[478] Sami Nader, the director of the Institute of Political Science at Saint Joseph University of Beirut, described the situation as a "tipping point".^[481]

The UNHCHR reported on 10 March that 700,000 Lebanese had been displaced by the war.^[482] Israel's army chief of staff Eyal Zamir said they will "deepen the operation" in Lebanon.^[483]

Other countries and regions

In addition to its strikes against Israel, Iran launched strikes against Bahrain,^[485][486] Kuwait,^[487] Oman,^[488] Saudi Arabia,^[489][490] Qatar, the United Arab Emirates,^[491][492] Azerbaijan,^[310][311] the Kurdistan Region of Iraq,^[493] and the Akrotiri and Dhekelia British Overseas Territory on Cyprus.^[494]

In Iraq, two members of the Iran-backed Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF) were killed and three injured in a US-Israeli attack on 28 February.^[495] A later report from The New York Times estimated three dead.^[496] On 1 and 2 March, the United States and Israel conducted several attacks on Iranian-backed Iraqi militias to degrade their military capabilities to conduct retaliatory attacks.^[497][498] On 2 March, a Kuwaiti F/A-18 shot down three American F-15Es in a friendly fire incident. The six crew members survived. The United States embassy in Kuwait was also hit by an Iranian missile strike, prompting Rubio to close the embassy until further notice.^[239][238]

Also the Iranian attacks affected military infrastructure from neutral NATO countries in the region, "including an Italian installation in Iraq and Kuwait, and a French naval facility in the United Arab Emirates."^[499]

The Russian consulate in Isfahan was damaged by the US-Israel airstrikes.^[500]

Since the outbreak of the war, 10 Palestinians civilians have been by Israelis killed in the West Bank, including two children who were killed by Israeli soldiers.^[501][502]

Casualties by country

Attacks by ballistic missiles and drones/UAVs

In Iran

Leadership

See also: 2026 Iranian supreme leader election

The three members of the Interim Leadership Council – President Masoud Pezeshkian, Chief Justice Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i and Ayatollah Alireza Arafi

The death of Ali Khamenei triggered an election for a new supreme leader. Under the terms of Iran's constitution, an Interim Leadership Council was established on 1 March to exercise the functions of Iran's head of state until a new supreme leader is elected.^[209]

Mojtaba Khamenei was elected on 8 March 2026 to replace his father as supreme leader,^[538] and the IRGC, as well as Iran's top leaders (including Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf, Ali Larijani, and Masoud Pezeshkian^[539]) pledged their allegiance to him.^[540] According to an analyst, Ali Khamenei had no role in choosing this successor.^[539] Trump called the new supreme leader "lightweight",^[518] and threatened that he would not last long without his approval.^[541] Israel echoed this sentiment.^[528]

In Israel

Israel declared a nationwide state of emergency, saying that the strikes on Iran were the largest that it had ever launched.^[186][559] Israeli schools and workspaces were closed and public gatherings were canceled.^[560]

In Palestine

The Israeli Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories closed multiple aid crossings in the Gaza Strip (specifically interrupting free circulation on the Egypt–Gaza border).^[561] Israeli forces suspended United Nations humanitarian movements and postponed planned rotations of international humanitarian staff (including medical evacuations and the return of people into Gaza), which the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs condemned.^[562]

Israeli settler violence against Palestinians in occupied West Bank has increased; settlers have taken advantage of curbs on movement imposed during the renewed Israeli state of emergency. The renewed blocking of West Bank roads (in the context of the 2026 Lebanon war) has delayed medics from assisting injured Palestinians.^[563] The EU stated on 10 March that the Israeli actions were unacceptable and urged the Israeli authorities to make immediate efforts to prevent the violence against Palestinian civilians under international law, warning that "impunity for such acts risks provoking further violence".^[564]

In Gulf states

The Arab states of the Persian Gulf started a campaign of prosecution against civilians and foreign citizens that shared or reposted rumours from unverified sources about the Iranian attacks, with the stated main goal to curb misinformation that could harm public order.^[565] Bahrain's Cyber Crime Directorate also started a campaign of arresting civilians in the country, which has a large Shiite minority, who allegedly expressed "their support for the Iranian shelling targeting the Kingdom of Bahrain", describing such activities as treason and as promotion of hostile acts against the state.^[566] Trump said "Even if we knew Gulf countries would be hit, big deal we did what we have to do".^[483]

Economic and geopolitical impact

Petrol gas prices measured in Euros and in liters in Germany on 3 March 2026.

Petrol gas prices measured in Euros and in liters in Germany on 8 March 2026, note the increase in price compared to a week earlier.

The war has global economic consequences: The conflict led to immediate surges in oil and gas prices, widespread disruptions in aviation and tourism, and heightened volatility in financial markets.^[567][568]

Disruption of international trade

Analysts projected potential global inflation increases and risks of recession if disruptions persisted, particularly through closures of key shipping routes like the Strait of Hormuz and strikes on gas and oil facilities^[567][568]

Oil prices rose following a reduction in traffic through the strait, and strikes on oil facilities in countries such as Saudi Arabia and the UAE.^[569] Oil prices went over $100 per barrel^[518] to $114 per barrel,^[518] giving it the highest prices since the COVID-19 pandemic. An expert warned that if this continues, this could lead into a worldwide economic recession.^[570] Gas prices also rose,^[234] and analysts said raising the world's prices was a part of the Iranian government's plan to apply pressure on the world to stop the war.^[571]

On 6 March, Qatar's energy minister Saad al-Kaabi warned that if the war continues other Gulf energy producers may be forced to halt exports and declare force majeure, and that "this will bring down economies of the world".^[572] Stock markets experienced declines, with the Dow Jones Industrial Average falling over 400 points (approximately one percent) on 2 March.^[573] Broader economic forecasts warned of inflationary pressures and slowed global growth if the conflict prolonged.^[574]

The UN World Food Programme and various economic analysts have warned that the 2026 military escalation in Iran is driving significant, long-term increases in global food prices.^[575][576] A near-total halt of tanker traffic in the Strait of Hormuz has disrupted the supply of fuel and essential fertilizers, threatening global food security and echoing the 2022 food crisis.^[577][578] The Fertilizer Institute (TFI) stated that nearly 50% of global urea and sulfur exports, as well as 20% of global liquefied natural gas (LNG)—a key feedstock for nitrogen fertilizers—transit through the Strait of Hormuz.^[579]

Strait of Hormuz

Main article: 2026 Strait of Hormuz crisis

The current soft closure in Hormuz, alongside the fears of a declared blockade, has caused an increase in financial risk due to the impact in the prices for energy, shipping, insurance, aviation, etc. The war in the Persian Gulf theater has provoked speculation in the world economy, caused by the possibility of prolonged supply disruption, which will have broader consequences for inflation, currencies, and emerging markets. One-fifth of global petroleum liquids consumption and more than one-quarter of global seaborne oil trade is done by the extraction of oil in the Persian Gulf Basin and its commerce through crossing the Strait of Hormuz.^[587] By 12 March, the UKMTO had received reports of 16 attacks on shipping in the Persian Gulf since the start of hostilities.^{[citation needed]} Mojtaba Khamenei, the new Supreme Leader, said the Strait of Hormuz would continue to be closed to pressure the US.^[588] However, Iran said that ships can come through the Hormuz as long as they cooperate with the Iranian navy.^[588] Araghchi said the Hormuz would be open overall but closed to Iran's enemies.^[483]

Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb

See also: Red Sea crisis

Houthi-controlled Yemen restarted its threats in the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea, which had been suspended since 10 October 2025 after the Gaza peace plan proposal.^[589] Some security sources claim that Houthis are planning to do incursions in the Arabian Sea and also use bases from the African side of the Red Sea, helped by their presence and some cells established in East Africa.^[590]

Hans Grundberg, the United Nations Special Envoy for Yemen, stressed the importance of protecting Yemen from being dragged into a new cycle of regional confrontations and urged the Houthis to refrain from escalatory actions, saying that "No party has the right to drag the country into a broader conflict that would bring more suffering to the Yemeni people."^[591][592]

As of 4 March, hostilities had not resumed as there was reportedly internal debate inside the group over its response.^[593] On 5 March, Houthi leader Abdul-Malik al-Houthi said in a recorded address that his group stood with Iran in the ongoing war and was prepared to take action if developments required it, stating, "Our hands are on the trigger whenever developments require it", and warning that the group remains ready to intervene if the situation escalates further.^[594][595]

By 7 March, the Houthis had released only three declarations, with a tone characterized as more disciplined and subdued this time, unlike its usual bellicose approach on other conflicts of the Middle Eastern crisis (2023–present), seeming more as political and emotional statements in favour of Iran rather than practical and military solidarity. Such pragmatist attitude has been influenced by the 2025 United States–Houthi ceasefire, not wanting to open multiple fronts in the current Yemeni civil war, which has been waging since 2014 and to focus on ending the conflict with Saudi Arabia.^[596][597]

Iran

Civilians

A holistic picture of civilian reactions in Iran is difficult to obtain due to the government's control over the circulation of information, the renewed internet blackout, and the ongoing heated nature of the war.^[614] In the initial aftermath of the strikes, there was evidence of both celebration and mourning at the killing of Iranian leadership.^[615] Photos and videos showed people inside Iran celebrating the attacks, hopeful that they will bring forth an end to the ruling government,^[616][617] as well as pro-government rallies where Iranians waved the Islamic Republic flag and held portraits of Khamenei while demonstrating against the US and Israeli attack.^{[618][619][620]} After Mojtaba Khamenei was named the next supreme leader on 8 March, video showed chants of "Death to Mojtaba" heard from the windows of an apartment block in Tehran.^[621][622] There was no immediate evidence of an uprising against the government.^[615][623] Civilians also expressed fear, grief and anger at the US-Israeli strikes, and at civilian casualties caused by them.^[624][625] Some civilians who had opposed the Islamic Republic and supported regime change later recoiled at the prolonged and violent nature of the war. An Iranian sociologist said that the war was causing a rally around the flag effect.^[623]

Diaspora and opposition

See also: 2026 Iranian diaspora protests § Celebrations following the Israeli–United States strikes on Iran

Following the US–Israeli airstrikes on Iran, some Iranians living abroad showed support for regime change in Iran. Celebratory rallies were held worldwide by many members of the Iranian diaspora, where Iranians gathered waving anti-Islamic Republic symbols, including the Lion and Sun flag.^{[626][627][628]} Reza Pahlavi, the most prominent leader of the opposition and son of the former Shah of Iran, supports the strikes on government and military targets, and states he is ready to have his transitional government take over should the Islamic Republic be overthrown.^[629][630] Kurdish Iranian dissidents in Iraq denied any attack plans, but said they would support a US invasion of Iran.^[631] On 7 March, an Iranian Kurd leader in Iraq said that ground operation into Iran is "highly likely".^[632]

United States

President Trump described the attacks on Iran as "a massive and ongoing operation to prevent this very wicked, radical dictatorship from threatening America".^[633] In a video posted to Truth Social, he reaffirmed that "Our objective is to defend the American people by eliminating imminent threats from the Iranian regime, a vicious group of very hard, terrible people", adding: "For 47 years, the Iranian regime has chanted 'Death to America' and waged an unending campaign of bloodshed and mass murder, targeting the United States, our troops and the innocent people in many, many countries."^[634] Trump also claimed that attacking Iran avoided a third world war.^[483] Trump said that talks with Iran will be easier following Khamenei's assassination.^[177] On the third day of the war, Trump said that the US military is "knocking the crap out of Iran but the big wave of attacks yet to come" and mentioning the possible use of ground troops.^[177] According to experts, the use of ground troops are required for the goals of the Trump administration in the Middle East.^[635] On 3 March, Trump said on Truth Social: "Their air defense, Air Force, Navy, and Leadership is gone. They want to talk. I said, 'Too Late!'"^[451] Trump claimed victory and said that he had defeated Iran militarily.^[16] Trump has also informally stated his idea for a post-war Iran in which a new Iranian regime works together on oil production in the same way that the US and Venezuela do.^[636] On 7 March, Trump shifted the war's objectives from urging Iranian civilians to seize control to demanding the "Unconditional surrender" of the regime, while stating that he would play a role in shaping the decisions that follow.^[637][638] Trump stated that regime change in Iran will happen, but "maybe not immediately".^[639] During the war, top US general Dan Caine said that Iran is fighting the US, which he respects, but Iranian forces are not more formidable than expected.^[640] JD Vance, the vice president of the United States, has voiced his support for the war.^[641]

Politicians

Some members of the US congress called for a vote on the War Powers Resolution, also known as the War Powers Act,^[647] that some other members asserted could have effectively ended the attack on Iran.^[648] Mike Johnson, the speaker of the United States House of Representatives, called the vote "dangerous".^[458] The resolution failed,^[649] mainly due to Republican opposition.^[650] Most House Democrats and two Republicans^[v] supported the Resolution, arguing that the military actions go beyond the President's authority to make war.^[652] Most Republicans and four Democrats^[w] voted down the Resolution, believing the War Powers Resolution empowers the President to engage in limited armed conflict.^[652] Representative Thomas Massie and former Representative Marjorie Taylor Greene argued Trump started the war as a distraction from the Epstein files.^[654] A similar resolution was voted down in the Senate, mostly along party lines.^[655]

Senator Rand Paul said that the Trump administration's reasons for wanting to go to war with Iran were not valid. He also thinks that war should be used only when all other options have been tried and failed, not as the first choice.^[656]

Israel

Netanyahu said the goal of the strikes was to "remove the existential threat posed by the terrorist regime in Iran", stating that "our joint action will create the conditions for the brave Iranian people to take their destiny into their own hands."^[659] Foreign Minister Gideon Sa'ar said that military action against Iran was urgently needed "despite the significant risks involved", adding that "delay would have allowed the Iranian regime to reach a level of immunity for its nuclear programme, as well as to engage in the mass production of long-range ballistic missiles".^[660] Minister of Science and Technology Gila Gamliel said that 2026 Israeli legislative election will likely be brought forward to late June or July to allow Netanyahu's bloc to leverage the war.^[661] Opposition leaders supported the strikes.^[662] On 4 March 2026, Defense Minister Israel Katz disclosed that Israel had initially planned to strike Iran in mid-2026.^[663] On 5 March 2026, Katz said that Netanyahu set an aim of assassinating Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei in November 2025.^[664] Israel's army chief Eyal Zamir^[477] said that the war will likely continue for a long time.^[665]

A March 2026 survey by the Israel Democracy Institute (IDI) found that 82% of the Israeli public supported ongoing military operations, including 93% of Jewish Israelis and 26% of Arab Israelis.^[666]

International

It was reported that European Union Commission president ⁠Ursula von der Leyen supports a regime change in Iran.^[667][668] NATO secretary general Mark Rutte said that Europe is "supportive" of the US attacks on Iran, as Iran is a "threat".^[669] He also said that he felt that the US "knows what it is doing".^[670] The US and Israeli attacks were supported at least in part by Ukraine,^[671][672] Albania,^[673] Argentina,^[674] Australia,^[675] Canada,^[676] Czechia,^[677] Finland,^[678] Germany,^[679] Kosovo,^[680] Latvia,^[681] Lithuania,^[681] New Zealand,^[682] Papua New Guinea,^[683] Romania,^[681] and Trinidad and Tobago,^[684] while being implicitly or explicitly opposed by Afghanistan,^[685] Armenia,^[686] Brazil,^[687] Chile,^[688][689] China,^[690] Kazakhstan,^[691][692] Oman,^[693] North Korea,^[694] Norway,^[672] Malaysia,^[695] Pakistan,^[696] Russia,^[671] Spain,^[697] and Vietnam.^[698] Germany later became a critic of the war.^[699] The US-Israeli attack was condemned by a number of progressive^[700] and left-wing parties,^[701][702] as well as trade unions,^[703][704] anti-war organizations,^[705][706] and some far-right parties.^[707][708]

Iran's retaliations were condemned by Austria,^[681] Bahrain,^[693] Belgium,^[681] Bulgaria,^[681] incoming president of Chile José Antonio Kast,^[709] Croatia,^[681] Cyprus,^[681] Djibouti,^[710] Egypt,^[711] India,^[712][713] Kazakhstan,^[691] Kuwait,^[672] Malta,^[681] Morocco,^[714] Netherlands,^[681] the Palestinian Authority,^[715] Portugal,^[716] Qatar,^[672] Saudi Arabia,^[201] Sweden,^[681] Syria,^[717] Somalia,^[718] Turkey,^[474] Somaliland,^[719] Taiwan,^[720] and the UAE,^[672] as well as by France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, who issued a joint declaration.^[721] The United Kingdom permitted the US to use British military bases for defensive purposes,^[722] although Trump refused their offer send over aircraft carriers.^[404] Portugal permitted the US to use Lajes Field for defensive purposes,^[723] and France sent its aircraft carrier towards the Mediterranean.^[474] When asked whether it would join the war, Canada said that it "can't rule out participation".^[724] On 5 March 2026, French broadcaster BFMTV reported that France authorized American armed forces to use French bases amid the war.^[725] France also called for Iran to "immediately cease strikes".^[305] There have been movements between Saudi Arabia and Pakistan due to the Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement between both countries, as it "states that any aggression against either country shall be considered an aggression against both".^[726][727]

Mixed reactions or calls for peace were made by South Africa,^[728] Azerbaijan,^[729] Indonesia,^[730] Lebanon,^{[731][732][672]} Ireland,^[733] Slovenia,^[681] Vatican City,^[734] Uruguay,^[735] Uzbekistan,^[736] and Venezuela.^[737] In addition to condemning both the US and Israeli attacks and Iran's counterattacks,^[681] Spain denied the use of its military bases for US flights connected to a military offensive against Iran, leading President Trump to threaten economic retaliation.^[738] In Pakistan, the army was deployed to suppress the escalation of violence during pro-Iranian protests in the northern cities of Gilgit and Skardu, especially after Shiite demonstrators attacked on 1 March the offices of the UN Military Observer Group at Azad Kashmir. Similar action was done in Sindh during the attack on the US consulate in Karachi.^[739]

The United Nations Security Council passed a resolution which calls for Iran to stop its attack on the Gulf states and condemned them for breaking international law. The resolution did not mention US-Israel strikes on Iran and Lebanon.^[740][741]

Legality under international law

The 2026 US-Israel attacks on Iran are widely considered illegal under international law, as they violate the UN Charter's prohibition on the use of force, because the attacks fail to meet the criteria for self-defense and lack authorization from the United Nations Security Council under Chapter VII.^[742][743] There is no recognized legal basis for preventive war or forcible regime change.^[744] The attacks have been, therefore, considered a war of aggression,^{[745][746][747]} which is the supreme war crime.^[748][749]

Ben Saul, United Nations special rapporteur on Human Rights and Counter-terrorism, stated that Iran had not enriched uranium to the point of building a nuclear device, that experts agreed Iran did not possess a nuclear weapon, and that the case was nowhere close to being self-defense against an imminent attack.^[742] Don Rothwell, a professor of international law at the Australian National University, stated that the UN Security council did not pass a resolution to attack Iran and no legal basis for justifying use of force.^[742] The Law Society Journal noted that striking Iran during active negotiations was against the principles of good faith outlined in Article 2(2) of the UN Charter.^[750]

According to The Guardian, under international law Iran has the right to attack US and Israeli military targets after their attacks on Iran, but Iranian attacks against civilians and against countries not party to the conflict are illegal.^[743]

Geopolitical implications

Numerous critics and analysts identified the US-Israeli attack with a more open embrace of imperialism by the Trump administration.^[751][90] The war is widely considered a "war of choice" and has been compared to the 2003 invasion of Iraq.^[752]

Rami Khouri called the war "the digital reconfiguration of Western colonial, imperialistic militarism" and identified the inability of autocratic governments in the Arab world to "mount a cohesive diplomatic or military response" to US and Israeli interventions as a factor that contributed to the outbreak of war.^[753]

Gilbert Achcar said that the US was practicing a modernized version of gunboat diplomacy.^[754]

Gokay and Hamourtziadou connected the attack on Iran with a longstanding pattern of US interventions in the region, saying that the war is "largely unrelated to the idiosyncrasies of Donald Trump, who is simply implementing a longstanding project aimed at establishing complete US dominance over the energy-rich regions of the Middle East". They also connected the attack on Iran in the midst of negotiations to the history of United States treaty-breaking during westward expansion.^[91]

Saeed Shah wrote that many in the Global South do not view the war as having the moral purpose that the US and many of its allies asserted, and that they instead see the war as a failure of diplomacy, and an act of aggression against a weaker nation. International relations experts said that Western hypocrisy and the erosion of international law was making nations in the Global South feel insecure, and more likely to support a coalition against US interests.^[755]

Der Spiegel described a joint war with the United States to attack Iran as "a dream for Benjamin Netanyahu that became true", but warned that it may have disastrous consequences for Israel.^[756]