Presidency of Nicolás Maduro
Government of Venezuela from 2013 to 2026
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
On 14 April 2013, Nicolás Maduro was elected President of Venezuela, narrowly defeating opposition candidate Henrique Capriles with just a popular vote lead of 1.5%. Capriles immediately demanded a recount, refusing to recognize the outcome as valid.[1] Maduro was later formally inaugurated as President on 19 April, after the election commission had promised a full audit of the election results.[2][3] On 24 October 2013, he announced the creation of a new agency, the Vice Ministry of Supreme Happiness, to coordinate all the social programmes.[4]
.jpg)
The second presidency of Nicolás Maduro (2019-2025)[d] represents the fifth governmental period in Venezuela under the Bolivarian Revolution. It began amidst a 68% voter abstention rate[5] and concluded with allegations of electoral fraud, with Maduro assuming an early start to what would be his third term.[6]
The foreign policy of Maduro's second term was characterized by the severance of diplomatic relations with Argentina, Bolivia (restored in 2020),[7] Brazil (restored in 2022),[8] Colombia (restored in 2022),[9] El Salvador, the United States,[10] Guatemala[11] and Paraguay.
On 3 January 2026, the United States captured Nicolás Maduro and his wife and the First Lady of Venezuela Cilia Flores in Caracas during the United States strike on Venezuela.
Rule by decree
Beginning six months after being elected, Maduro has ruled by decree for the majority of his presidency: from 19 November 2013 to 19 November 2014,[12] 15 March 2015 to 31 December 2015, 15 January 2016 to present.[13]
2013–2014
In October 2013, Maduro requested an enabling law to rule by decree in order to fight corruption[14][15] and to also fight what he called an "economic war" which had the goal of radically reducing poverty.[16] Implementing price controls, wage controls, profit controls, and general economic restructuring. On 19 November 2013, the National Assembly granted Maduro the power to rule by decree until 19 November 2014.[17]
2015–2016
On 10 March 2015, Maduro asked to rule by decree for a second time following the sanctioning of seven Venezuelan officials by the United States, requesting the Enabling Law to be used to "confront" what Maduro called "the aggression of the most powerful country in the world, the United States".[18] Days later on 15 March 2015, the National Assembly granted Maduro power to rule by decree until 31 December 2015.[19]
2016–2017
After a coalition of opposition parties won in the 6 December 2015 elections, the lame duck Assembly named 13 new Justices sympathetic toward Maduro to the Supreme Court.[20] On 15 January 2016, Maduro declared an economic emergency and issued a "vaguely worded" decree that would grant himself extraordinary powers for 60 days, or until 15 March 2016.[21][22] Days after on 18 March 2016, the expiration of the decree powers, the Supreme Court granted Maduro the power to rule by decree for an additional 60 days, or until 17 May 2016.[23]
Days before his second 60-day rule by decree were to end, Maduro stated on 11 May 2016 that he would continue to rule by decree through the rest of the year until 2017.[24]
2017–2018
While meeting with the Supreme Tribunal of Justice on 15 January 2017, Maduro signed a new economic decree, extending his rule by decree for the sixth time since the original ruling in January 2016.[25] On 19 January, the Supreme Tribunal of Justice established the "Decree on the State of Emergency and Economic Emergency", granting Maduro to rule by decree further into 2017.[26]
On 13 May 2017 at a time of rising unrest during the 2017 Venezuelan protests, President Maduro extended his decree powers for the eighth time since January 2016, allowing him to rule by decree for another 60 days.[13] The powers were extended again on 13 July 2017 for an additional 60 days.[27]
On 15 October, the Bolivarian government Great Patriotic Pole won 18 of the 23 governorships while the opposition only 5 during the 2017 Venezuelan regional elections.
On 10 December, the Bolivarian government Great Patriotic Pole won 306 of the 337 Mayorships during the 2017 Venezuelan municipal elections.
Cabinet of Maduro
Military authority
Since coming to power three years ago, Mr. Maduro has relied increasingly on the armed forces as a spiraling economic crisis pushed his approval ratings to record lows and food shortages led to lootings. ... The armed forces have swiftly repressed all opposition rallies as well as the food riots that flare up daily across the country.
Maduro has relied on the military to maintain power since he was initially elected into office.[28] According to Luis Manuel Esculpi, a Venezuelan security analyst, "The army is Maduro's only source of authority."[28] As time passed, Maduro grew more reliant on the military, showing that Maduro was losing power as described by Amherst College professor, Javier Corrales.[29] Corrales explains that "From 2003 until Chavez died in 2013, the civilian wing was strong, so he did not have to fall back on the military. As civilians withdrew their support, Maduro was forced to resort to military force."[29] The New York Times states that Maduro no longer has the oil revenue to buy loyalty for protection, instead relying on favorable exchange rates, as well as the smuggling of food and drugs, which "also generate revenue".[30]
On 12 July 2016, Maduro granted Defense Minister Vladimir Padrino López the power to oversee product transportation, price controls, the Bolivarian missions, while also having his military command five of Venezuela's main ports.[31][32][33] This action performed by President Maduro made General Padrino one of the most powerful people in Venezuela, possibly "the second most powerful man in Venezuelan politics".[32][34] The appointment of Padrino was also seen to be similar to the Cuban government's tactic of granting the Cuban military the power to manage Cuba's economy.[32] It is the first time since the dictatorship of General Marcos Perez Jimenez in 1958 that a military official has held such power in Venezuela.[33] According to Corrales, "For all of the ministers of the cabinet to have to respond to a soldier, this is associated with military dictatorships".[28]
According to Nicolás Maduro:[32]
All ministries and government institutions are subordinated to the National Command of the Great Mission for Safe Sovereign and Safe Supply, which is under the command of the President and of the top General, Vladimir Padrino López.
Domestic policy
.jpg)
Maduro denies that Venezuela has been facing a humanitarian crisis.[35] Maduro stuck to his predecessor Hugo Chávez's policies in order to remain popular to those who find a connection between the two. Despite the increasingly difficult crises facing Venezuela, such as a faltering economy and high crime rate, Maduro continued the use of Chávez's policies.[36]
After continuing Chávez's policies, Maduro's support among Venezuelans began to decrease, with Bloomberg explaining that he held on to power by placing opponents in jail and impeding upon Venezuela's freedom of press.[37] According to Marsh, instead of making any policy changes, Maduro placed attention on his "hold on power by closing off the legal channels through which the opposition can act".[38] Shannon K. O'Neil of the Council on Foreign Relations stated that "After Chavez's death, Maduro has just continued and accelerated the authoritarian and totalitarian policies of Chavez".[39]
.jpg)
Regarding Maduro's ideology, Professor Ramón Piñango, a sociologist from the Venezuelan University of IESA, "Maduro has a very strong ideological orientation, close to the Communist ideology. Contrary to Diosdado, he is not very pragmatic".[40] Maduro himself has stated that Venezuela must build a more socialist nation, highlighting that the country needs an economic overhaul, a political-military union and government involvement in the workplace.[41]
Crime
One of the first important presidential programs of Maduro became the "Safe Homeland" program, a massive police and military campaign to build security in the country. Three thousand soldiers were deployed to decrease homicide in Venezuela, which has one of the highest rates of homicide in Latin America.[42] Most of these troops were deployed in the state of Miranda (Greater Caracas), which has the highest homicide rate in Venezuela. According to the government, in 2012, more than 16,000 people were killed, a rate of 54 people per 100,000, although the Venezuela Violence Observatory, a Venezuelan NGO, claims that the homicide rate was in fact 73 people per 100,000.[42] The program had to be reinitiated one year later after the program's creator, Miguel Rodríguez Torres, was replaced by Carmen Melendez Teresa Rivas.[citation needed] Murder also increased over the years since the program's initiation according to the Venezuela Violence Observatory, with the murder rate increasing to 82 per 100,000 in 2014.[43] 23,047 homicides were committed in Venezuela in 2018, a rate of 81.4 per 100,000 people.[44]
Economic
When elected in 2013, Maduro continued the majority of existing economic policies of his predecessor Hugo Chávez. When entering the presidency, Maduro's Venezuela faced a high inflation rate and large shortages of goods[45][46][47] that was left over from the previous administration of President Chávez.[48][49][50][51]
Maduro blamed wealthy businessmen for hoarding goods and speculation that is driving high rates of inflation and creating widespread shortages of staples, and often said he was fighting an "economic war", calling newly enacted economic measures "economic offensives" against political opponents he and loyalists state are behind an international economic conspiracy.[52][53][54][55][56][57] However, Maduro has been criticized for only concentrating on public opinion instead of tending to the practical issues economists have warned the Venezuelan government about or creating any ideas to improve the economic situation in Venezuela such as the "economic war".[58][59]
Venezuela was ranked as the top spot globally with the highest misery index score in 2013,[60] 2014,[61] 2015,[62][63] and 2016.[64] In 2014, Venezuela's economy entered an economic depression[65] that has continued as of 2017.[38] Under Maduro's rule, GDP has approximately halved.[66]
Defense
In 2023, Nicolás Maduro conducted a significant reshuffling of the Venezuelan military high command, retiring the general commanders of all branches: the Army, Military Aviation, National Guard, and Navy, as well as the commanders of the civilian-military Bolivarian Militia, the Integrated Aerospace Defense Command (Codai), and the Inspector General of the Armed Forces.[67]
In May 2024, it was announced that one million members of the Bolivarian Militia would undergo weapons training.[68]
Media policy
In 2019, several international news channels were taken off the air in Venezuela, including Canal 24 Horas, TV Chile, Antena 3, National Geographic, CNN, BBC, Telearuba, and TeleCuraçao. Between 2021 and 2022, the National Commission of Telecommunications (Conatel) blocked 45 news websites. The Inter American Press Association has condemned these actions as a "gag on independent journalism."[69][70] In 2023, TBS and TruTV also ceased broadcasting in the country. Following a report on corruption in Venezuela, the German broadcaster Deutsche Welle was taken off the air in March 2024, with President Maduro criticizing the outlet as "Nazi."[71]
According to the Chapultepec Index by the Inter American Press Association, Venezuela was ranked last (#22) in the index of freedom of expression and the press in the Americas for both 2020 and 2021, receiving the classification of a country "without freedom of expression." The country rose to the #21 position in 2022 and remained there in 2023, still with the classification of "without freedom of expression."[72][73]
Military
Since coming to power three years ago, Mr. Maduro has relied increasingly on the armed forces as a spiraling economic crisis pushed his approval ratings to record lows and food shortages led to lootings. ... The armed forces have swiftly repressed all opposition rallies as well as the food riots that flare up daily across the country.
Maduro has relied on the military to maintain power since he was initially elected into office.[28] He has promised to make Venezuela a great power by 2050, stating that the Venezuelan military would lead the way to make the country "a powerhouse, of happiness, of equality".[74]
On 12 July 2016, Maduro granted Defense Minister Vladimir Padrino López the power to oversee product transportation, price controls, the Bolivarian missions, while also having his military command five of Venezuela's main ports.[75][76][77] This action performed by President Maduro made General Padrino one of the most powerful people in Venezuela, possibly "the second most powerful man in Venezuelan politics".[34][76] The appointment of Padrino was also seen to be similar to the Cuban government's tactic of granting the Cuban military the power to manage Cuba's economy.[76]
According to Nicolás Maduro:[76]
All ministries and government institutions are subordinated to the National Command of the Great Mission for Safe Sovereign and Safe Supply, which is under the command of the President and of the top General, Vladimir Padrino López.
It was the first time since the dictatorship of General Marcos Pérez Jiménez in 1958 that a military official has held such power in Venezuela.[77]
Judicial policy
Appointment of magistrates
The 2015 Venezuelan parliamentary election was held on 6 December 2015.[78] The elections resulted in the victory of the Democratic Unity Roundtable (MUD), the main opposition movement to the government of President Nicolás Maduro, with 112 of the 167 seats in the National Assembly (56.2% of the vote), and the first major electoral victory for the opposition in 17 years.[79]
In response to the opposition's victory, Chavismo reacted with the appointment of 13 principal magistrates and 21 substitutes to the Supreme Tribunal of Justice (TSJ), carried out on 23 December 2015 by the National Assembly dominated by Chavistas in a record time of less than fifteen days.[80] Both the opposition and various legal scholars described the appointments as illegal because they were not carried out in accordance with the Constitution of Venezuela and the Organic Law of the Supreme Tribunal of Justice, including violations of the objection period, the lack of responses to objections, and the omission of the final selection of candidates, in addition to the fact that the appointments were made after the legislative year had ended on 15 December.[81]
Suspension of Amazonas deputies
On 5 January 2016, the constitutional term of the National Legislative Power began, with a total of 163 of the 167 deputies elected in December 2015, due to the suspension of the election in Amazonas state by the Venezuelan Supreme Tribunal of Justice (TSJ), affecting four deputies.[82] On 6 January 2016, before the beginning of the first ordinary session, three of the four deputies whose elections had been suspended by the TSJ were sworn in by Assembly president Henry Ramos Allup, arguing that the court's decision was unconstitutional.[83] The remaining deputy, who belonged to the United Socialist Party of Venezuela, decided not to be sworn in. Days later, the deputies decided to step down in order to end the supposed "contempt", with the Parliament approving the measure and notifying the TSJ of the decision on 13 January; however, the TSJ has not issued a ruling lifting the contempt sentence to this day.
Institutional crisis
As a result of the 2017 Venezuelan constitutional crisis, the Public Ministry formally requested the annulment of the appointments, arguing that the process had been flawed.[84] Consequently, the National Assembly, now with an opposition majority, on 13 June 2017 swore in the Judicial Nominations Committee, chaired by deputy Carlos Berrizbeitia, for the election of new principal TSJ magistrates.[85] Although all the stages contemplated in the constitution and in the Organic Law of the Supreme Tribunal of Justice were completed, Venezuela's Republican Moral Council refused to carry out the preselection, arguing that the process was untimely.[86] Despite the council's refusal, on 21 July 2017 the National Assembly appointed 13 principal magistrates and 21 substitutes; by 24 July, three magistrates had been detained and 30 were in hiding.[87]
Attorney General Luisa Ortega Díaz criticized the appointments, arguing that they created disorder within the state.[88] For its part, the TSJ warned that the appointments were null under the pretext of the alleged contempt in which the National Assembly remained, while simultaneously requesting that civilian and military courts exercise the necessary measures of coercion.[89]
Electoral policy
2013 municipal elections
Dakazo
The Dakazo was a series of actions taken by the Venezuelan government forcing consumer electronics stores, mainly Daka, to sell products at much lower prices on 8 November 2013, weeks before the municipal elections that same year and one month before Christmas. The price changes helped the ruling party, the PSUV, win some of the municipal elections, but also caused looting and product shortages in the following months.[90]
Municipal elections
The municipal elections had originally been scheduled for Sunday, 14 April 2013, but due to the death of President Hugo Chávez and the announcement of new presidential elections for the same day, the National Electoral Council decided to postpone them until 8 December 2013.[91] The results announced by the CNE indicated a victory for the PSUV and its allies in most municipalities of the country, obtaining 240 of the 337 mayoralties,[92] although the major cities were governed by opposition candidates. The ruling alliance also obtained the majority of municipal councils and the majority of votes nationwide, with 5,216,522 votes representing 48.69%, while the opposition alliance MUD obtained 4,373,910 votes representing 39.34%. The opposition won at least 81 mayoralties, an increase of 33.9% compared to the 56 mayoralties it had held four years earlier.[93]
Suspension of the presidential recall referendum
On 20 October 2016, the Venezuelan National Electoral Council (CNE) suspended, until further notice, the collection of signatures corresponding to 20 percent of those registered in the national electoral registry required to request a recall referendum against the president's mandate.[94] This occurred because five different courts in the states of Carabobo, Aragua, Bolívar, Monagas and Apure simultaneously ruled to annul the first signature collection process for the referendum. On 21 October, the criminal court of Zulia state did the same.[95]
Reactions
Opponents of the Maduro government considered the annulment a breakdown of Venezuela's constitutional order, and it was denounced by the Secretary General of the Organization of American States, since this popular vote was guaranteed and protected by the 1999 Constitution of Venezuela, established during the government of Hugo Chávez.[96] Eleven OAS member states expressed concern over the suspension of the recall referendum in a public letter.[97]
Opponents also argued that the supposed constitutional breakdown was worsened by the adoption of a ruling by a lower court of regional jurisdiction as if it were valid nationwide. According to critics, this action would have been irregular because it went against standard Venezuelan legislative mechanisms, whereby only a court with national jurisdiction would be valid to modify or suspend a national referendum.[98]
The 2016 Venezuelan general strike was called for Friday, 28 October 2016, by several Venezuelan trade union organizations, including Democratic Action, Alianza Bravo Pueblo, Convergence, Liberal Force, Justice First, A New Era, and movements such as the Venezuelan student movement, as a protest against the suspension of the presidential recall referendum.
2018 presidential election
The presidential elections in Venezuela for the 2019–2025 term were held on Sunday, 20 May 2018. International organizations such as the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, the European Union, the Organization of American States and other countries rejected the election call due to its lack of transparency and electoral guarantees and stated that they would not recognize the results. However, countries such as Russia, China, Turkey, North Korea, Iran, Bolivia, Cuba, El Salvador and Nicaragua expressed support for the elections.[99]
The election, criticized for lacking transparency in the process of calling and conducting it, as well as for allegations concerning the use of political checkpoints near polling centers and the bias of the electoral authority, was internationally condemned. The contest registered the highest abstention rate in presidential election history since the return of democracy in 1958.[100]
Subsequently, at the beginning of January 2019, close to the inauguration date of reelected candidate Nicolás Maduro, a series of statements were issued expressing non-recognition of him as president, including by the Organization of American States, the European Union and its member states.[101]
Security policy
At the end of 2012, Venezuela's Minister of Interior and Justice, Néstor Reverol, said that murders had increased by 14% in 2012, reaching the figure of 16,072 homicides.[102] On 13 May 2013 the Safe Homeland Plan began, which involved the deployment of 3,000 troops of the National Army in Caracas to assume functions of public security.[103]
On 22 September 2014, President Maduro announced that his government would invest $47 million for the creation of 60 new disarmament centers, and $39 million to finance the disarmament plan under which National Guard troops would patrol the most dangerous neighborhoods.[104]
On 13 July 2015 Maduro launched the Operation Liberation of the People (OLP), a police deployment as a response to the increase of violence in Venezuela. It consists of operations where citizens are detained and verified in the Integrated Police Information System (SIIPOL) in order to determine whether any crime has been committed.[105] In April 2016 the Special Actions Forces (FAES), a command of the Bolivarian National Police (PNB), was created.[106] The FAES have been accused of being a political instrument of President Nicolás Maduro,[106] as well as receiving accusations of being an extermination group[107] and repression of opponents.[108]
El Junquito massacre
On 15 January 2018 the Operation Gideon was carried out in the El Junquito neighborhood, northwest of Caracas, where officials of the CONAS, SEBIN, DGCIM, GNB, FAES, PNB and Policaracas[109] stormed the El Junquito Parish in search of Oscar Pérez.[110] Immediately afterwards a confrontation occurred, leaving several dead and wounded.[111]
Óscar Pérez died during the police operation.[112] In the operation ten people died: seven members of the opposition group, two officers of the Bolivarian National Police Corps and one leader of the so-called colectivos. Various national and international movements and organizations categorized the action as a "massacre"[113] and/or "extrajudicial execution".[114]
After the death of Óscar Pérez, people close to him revealed that those responsible for the homicide had received the order not to take anyone alive and to kill Pérez. Shortly afterwards, Maduro confirmed that he had given the order to kill Óscar Pérez and threatened to apply the same tactic to any opposition group that he considered terrorist.{{country data {{{1}}} | flag link/core | variant = | size = | name = | altlink = national cricket team | altvar = cricket }}
2018 Caracas attack
On 4 August 2018, in Caracas, Maduro was giving a speech at an event for the commemoration of the 81 years since the creation of the Bolivarian National Guard (GNB), when an explosion of an drone loaded with the explosive C-4 occurred.[115] The president was unharmed, but seven members of the GNB were reported injured.[116] As a consequence the detention of Juan Requesents, deputy of the National Assembly, occurred, in addition to the arrest and assassination of opposition leader Fernando Albán Salazar.
Transport policy
Crisis with airlines
Beginning in November 2013 some airlines began to have problems for the repatriation of capital to their main headquarters, after selling tickets in bolívares for reimbursement in dollars through the Cadivi system.[117] The government maintains a debt with around 32 airlines since before 2014 in the time of CADIVI for a value of US$3.5 billion dollars, expressed the president of the Association of Airlines in Venezuela (Alav), Humberto Figuera[118][119]
On 17 March 2014 Air Canada announced that it suspended indefinitely its operations in Venezuela due to the lack of cancellation of the debt that the government maintained with the airline.[120] On 2 June Alitalia suspended operations in Venezuela due to the multimillion-dollar debt of the government with the airline.[121] By November 2019 the debt to the airlines remained, year for which there were nine foreign airline companies firmly operating[122][118]
Odebrecht case in Venezuela
Allegations of bribery
The United States Department of Justice investigated the Brazilian construction company Odebrecht and determined that it had paid around 788 million dollars in bribes to 11 countries, apart from Brazil, beginning in 2001. Of this amount, Odebrecht allegedly gave around 98 million dollars to government officials and intermediaries in order to obtain State contracts. Odebrecht admitted responsibility and agreed to pay a fine of around 3.5 billion dollars.[123]
In Venezuela, 31 projects awarded to the Brazilian company without bidding became known under the alleged binational agreement (agreement between states) but which was carried out between the Venezuelan state and a private company from Brazil, as in the case of the Tocoma Dam[124] when in February 2016 the external adviser of the Brazilian Odebrecht company and representative of the OIV Consortium could not satisfactorily explain to deputies of the National Assembly how the Tocoma Hydroelectric Plant project had four years of delay when he was questioned, for which political responsibility was declared for seven former electricity ministers: Rafael Ramírez Carreño; Alí Rodríguez Araque; Jesse Chacón; Argenis Chávez; Nervis Villalobos, and Javier Alvarado.[125]
Conviction of Marcelo Odebrecht in Brazil
On 7 March 2016, the former president of the company, Marcelo Odebrecht, was sentenced to 19 years and four months in prison in Brazil for having paid more than 30 million dollars in bribes to Petrobras executives in exchange for contracts and influence.[126]
Allegations of financing Chávez and Capriles campaigns
Between June and December 2017 it was alleged that the Odebrecht company had financed the campaigns of the two main presidential candidates of the 2012 elections: Hugo Chávez (the Brazilian publicist Mônica Moura was detained by the Brazilian justice system and declared that Chávez's campaign cost 35 million dollars and was illegally financed by Odebrecht)[127] and Henrique Capriles[128][129] (who denied the accusations)[130] for a smaller figure, with him being denounced before the Prosecutor's Office by politician Luis Tellerías because of these events.[131]
Freezing of Swiss accounts linked to a relative of Haiman El Troudi
In July 2017, prosecutors in Switzerland froze 42 million dollars from eight bank accounts that received transfers from offshore companies linked to Odebrecht in the name of Elita Zacarías, mother-in-law of former minister Haiman El Troudi, and both Elita del Valle and El Troudi's wife, María Baptista, were summoned as defendants for allegedly being related to the corruption case. The court in charge of the case in Venezuela exempted the family from responsibility, disregarding the investigations carried out in Switzerland.[132][133] During his administration, El Troudi used supplementary documents to modify the amounts in contracts for works such as Caracas Metro Guarenas-Guatire, Line 5 of the Caracas Metro, Line 2 of the Los Teques Metro and Metrocable (Caracas) Mariche-La Dolorita.[134]
Complaint against Maduro by the Prosecutor's Office
On 19 August 2017 attorney general Luisa Ortega Díaz made a complaint against Nicolás Maduro through an audio released by the prosecutor's office of Puebla in the Odebrecht bribery case; around 98 million dollars would have been received between 2005 and 2015. This led her to flee the country, leaving from the Paraguaná Peninsula on a yacht toward Aruba and then to Colombia. The attorney general and another 64 Venezuelan prosecutors were prohibited from leaving the country.[135][136]
In October 2017 attorney general Ortega Díaz made public a video where Euzenando Prazeres de Azevedo, the former director of Odebrecht in Venezuela, declared before the Attorney General's Office of Brazil that Maduro had received US$35 million to finance his presidential campaign in 2013. In the recording, Euzenando Prazeres de Azevedo says that Américo Mata, whom he identified as a representative of Maduro, contacted him to request money for Maduro's campaign.[137]
Trial of Nicolás Maduro
On 22 February 2018, the magistrates of the Full Chamber of the Supreme Tribunal of Justice of Venezuela in exile admitted the request for a preliminary hearing presented by attorney general Luisa Ortega Díaz against Nicolás Maduro for the crimes of corruption and money laundering related to the payment of bribes allegedly made by the company Odebrecht to several Venezuelan politicians with the purpose of obtaining contracts in major public works. Luisa Ortega stated that in an investigation carried out by her office it was possible to verify that in 2012 the presidential campaign of Hugo Chávez was paid for by Odebrecht and the money was received by Maduro, who served as foreign minister.[138]
On 28 March the Supreme Tribunal notified Nicolás Maduro to appear on 3 April at a preliminary hearing for corruption accusations related to the Odebrecht case.[139] In the face of his nonappearance, the Supreme Tribunal proceeded to appoint trial lawyer Andrés Felipe Lindo as public defender, in order to guarantee the right to defense.[140] On 9 April the tribunal admitted the preliminary hearing against Maduro requested by the attorney general, ordering preventive detention against the president and requesting a red notice from Interpol against him.[141]
On 17 April the National Assembly approved with 105 votes in favor, from the opposition bloc, and two against, Juan Marín (PSUV) and Ilenia Medina (PPT) from the ruling party, the continuation of the trial against president Nicolás Maduro for corruption in response to the request submitted by the magistrates of the Supreme Tribunal. The agreement voted on by the deputies established declaring that sufficient merits exist to continue the judicial process and continue with the investigations carried out in the National Assembly in accordance with Article 187 of the constitution for acts of corruption that could derive from Maduro. The vote was carried out nominally and the leadership of the assembly decided to approve the trial with a simple majority; that is, 84 votes, based on Article 89 of the Parliament's Internal Rules and Debates Regulations. The leader of the bloc of the Democratic Unity Roundtable (MUD), Juan Guaidó, read the report in which president Nicolás Maduro approved 30 billion dollars for the execution of works in charge of Odebrecht that were halted or unfinished. By orders of colonel Bladimir Lugo of the Bolivarian National Guard (GNB), the media were unable to enter the Legislative Palace; the colonel kept journalists waiting for more than one hour at the San Francisco corner to finally decide that they would not have access.[142]
On 3 May 2018 the Supreme Tribunal declared Maduro suspended as president and ordered his disqualification from any other public office.[143][144] OAS secretary general Luis Almagro recognized Maduro's disqualification and suspension as president.[145] The political party Vente Venezuela published a statement supporting the tribunal's decision, maintaining that "it ratifies that Maduro cannot be a candidate in any election" and that with this decision it corresponds to the National Assembly to begin a new process "to occupy that vacuum and advance in the restoration of democratic order in the country".[146] The suspension from office and detention order was also supported by the Federation of Law Students of Venezuela (Fedeve), which rejected "the persecution and abuses carried out by the repressive dictatorship against the magistrates of the Supreme Tribunal of Justice (TSJ) in exile, and consequently against their relatives in Venezuela" in a statement, and its members demanded that the competent international organizations take pertinent actions in response to such acts.[147]
On 15 August, the Supreme Tribunal sentenced Nicolás Maduro to 18 years and 3 months in prison in Ramo Verde prison for the corruption crimes imputed to him, in addition to ordering him to pay 35 billion dollars for the damage to the country's public patrimony.[148] The sentence has not yet been carried out, since the Maduro government only recognizes the Supreme Tribunal of Justice of Venezuela.[149]
Foreign policy
The foreign policy of Maduro's second term was characterized by the continuation of alliances with Cuba, Nicaragua, Russia, China, Iran, and Turkey,[11] alongside the severance of diplomatic relations with Argentina, Bolivia (restored in 2020),[7] Brazil (restored in 2022),[8] Colombia (restored in 2022),[9] El Salvador, the United States,[10] Guatemala[11] and Paraguay.
Americas
Brazil
.jpg)
Venezuela-Brazil relations have swung from amicable during the leftist administrations of Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (2003-2010; 2023-present) and Dilma Rousseff (2010-2016), to antagonistic during the right-wing administrations of Michel Temer (2016-2019) and Jair Bolsonaro (2019-2023).[150]
On 14 January 2019, days after Brazil recognized Venezuelan opposition leader Juan Guaidó as the country's interim president, Maduro called Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro "a Hitler of the modern era".[151]
United States of America
Maduro has accused the United States of intervention in Venezuela several times with his allegations ranging from post-election violence by "neo-Nazi groups", economic difficulties from what he called an "economic war" and various coup plots.[152][153] The United States has denied such accusations.[153]
.jpg)
In early 2015 the Obama administration signed an executive order which imposed targeted sanctions on seven Venezuelan officials whom the White House argued were instrumental in human rights violations, persecution of political opponents and significant public corruption and said that the country posed an "unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States".[154] Maduro responded to the sanctions in a couple of ways. He wrote an open letter in a full-page ad in The New York Times in March 2015, stating that Venezuelans were "friends of the American people" and called President Obama's action of making targeted sanctions on the alleged human rights abusers a "unilateral and aggressive measure".[155][156] Examples of accusations of human rights abuses from the United States to Maduro's government included the murder of a political activist prior to legislative elections in Venezuela.[157] Maduro threatened to sue the United States over an executive order issued by the Obama Administration that declared Venezuela to be a threat to American security.[158] He also planned to deliver 10 million signatures, or signatures from about 1/3 of Venezuela's population, denouncing the United States' decree declaring the situation in Venezuela an "extraordinary threat to US national security".[159][160] and ordered all schools in the country to hold an "anti-imperialist day" against the United States with the day's activities including the "collection of the signatures of the students, and teaching, administrative, maintenance and cooking personnel".[160] Maduro further ordered state workers to apply their signatures in protest, with some workers reporting that firings of state workers occurred due to their rejection of signing the executive order protesting the "Obama decree".[160][161][162][163][164][165] There were also reports that members of Venezuelan armed forces and their families were ordered to sign against the United States decree.[160]
Proposed United States invasion of Venezuela
The possibility of a United States-led invasion of Venezuela has been frequently discussed during the presidencies of Donald Trump.
In 2017, during his first presidency, Trump said that he was "not going to rule out a military option" to address the worsening crisis in Venezuela. In 2025, during his second presidency, the United States surged military assets to the Caribbean as part of Operation Southern Spear, citing the fight against drug cartels as its stated objective. During this buildup, experts, analysts and current and former government officials stated that the assets deployed were insufficient for an invasion and that they viewed an invasion as unlikely.
In 2026, the United States launched Operation Absolute Resolve, conducting airstrikes on Venezuela and capturing President Nicolás Maduro and his wife Cilia Flores. This led to questions being raised about the possibility of long-term military intervention involving ground troops in Venezuela.
Asia
China
Maduro has reached out to China for economic assistance while China has funneled billions of dollars from multiple loans into Venezuela.[166] China is Venezuela's second largest trade partner with two-thirds of Venezuelan exports to China composed of oil.[166] According to Mark Jones, a Latin American expert of the Baker Institute, China was "investing for strategic reasons" rather than ideological similarities.[166] The Venezuelan military has also used military equipment from China using the NORINCO VN-4 armoured vehicle against protesters during the 2014–15 Venezuelan protests, ordering hundreds more as a result of the demonstrations.[167][168]
Israel and Palestine
In the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, Maduro has frequently supported the Palestinian cause in international forums including his stance that his country recognizes Jerusalem as the eternal capital of Palestine after the US embassy move to Jerusalem which he called an "extremist decision" that lacks legal validity and violates international law.[169][170][171][172] In January 2019, Maduro reaffirms the unconditional support for the struggle of the Palestinians in defense of their sovereignty in accordance with the principles of the Charter of the United Nations and international law.[173]
In December 2017, Maduro was invited as the special honorary guest at the Extraordinary Summit of the OIC (Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) in Istanbul, Turkey with the main issue being to unify the response of the Muslim world to the US embassy move to Jerusalem, which Maduro called a "colonial act."[174][175]
International organizations
Declaración de Panamá
On 6 April 2015, twenty-five (25) ex-presidents issued a Declaración de Panamá,[176] a statement denouncing the VII Cumbre de las Américas, what they called "democratic alteration" in Venezuela, promoted by the government of Nicolas Maduro. The statement calls for the immediate release of "political prisoners" in Venezuela. Among the former heads of government that have called for improvements in Venezuela are: Jorge Quiroga (Bolivia); Sebastián Piñera (Chile): Andrés Pastrana, Álvaro Uribe and Belisario Betancur (Colombia); Miguel Ángel Rodríguez, Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia, Laura Chinchilla, Óscar Arias, Luis Alberto Monge (Costa Rica), Osvaldo Hurtado (Ecuador); Alfredo Cristiani and Armando Calderón (EL Salvador); José María Aznar (Spain); Felipe Calderón and Vicente Fox (México), Mireya Moscoso (Panamá), Alejandro Toledo (Perú) and Luis Alberto Lacalle (Uruguay).[177]
Non-Aligned Movement
At the 17th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) in 2016, hosted by Venezuela at Margarita Island, Maduro was elected chairperson by acclamation, a position that he is to hold until the 18th Summit in Azerbaijan in 2019.[178] Maduro's administration spent over US$120 million on the event,[179] and Maduro billed it as a meeting that would "be remembered for centuries"; according to Al Jazeera, the "delegates who did come complained privately of a lack of organisation, delays and shabby hotels".[180] The Maduro administration did not respond to a request from Al Jazeera for a list of delegations present;[180] of the 120 NAM member states, media sources estimated between 10[181] and 15[182] heads of state attended, including Bolivia,[180] Cuba, Ecuador, Palestine, Iran, Syria and Zimbabwe.[181] For only the second time since NAM was founded, India did not attend;[181] of the countries that did attend, many are recipients of Venezuelan oil subsidies, according to Foreign Policy and Fox News.[181][183]
International Criminal Court investigation
An investigation by the International Criminal Court (ICC) to analyze possible crimes against humanity committed in Venezuela was opened in 2021.[184] A preliminary examination was initially opened in 2006, and closed after concluding that the requirements to start an investigation had not been met.[185] In February 2018, the ICC announced that it would open preliminary probes into alleged crimes against humanity performed by Venezuelan authorities since at least April 2017.[186] In 2020, the Office of the Prosecutor of the ICC stated that it believed there was a "reasonable basis" to believe that "since at least April 2017, civilian authorities, members of the armed forces and pro-government individuals have committed the crimes against humanity",[187] and on 2021 ICC Prosecutor Karim Khan announced the opening of an investigation regarding the situation in the country.[184]
International trips
This list provides a summary of the official foreign visits made by Maduro as president of Venezuela.
.jpg)
2013
| Date | Place | Areas visited | Main purpose |
|---|---|---|---|
| 18 April |  Peru |
Lima | Attended the extraordinary meeting of UNASUR.[188] |
| 7 May |  Uruguay |
Montevideo | Guest at the Mercosur Summit.[189] |
| 8 May |  Argentina |
Buenos Aires | Meeting with President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner.[190] |
| 25 May |  Bolivia |
Cochabamba | Meeting with President Evo Morales.[191] |
| 2 June |  Nicaragua |
Managua | Meeting with President Daniel Ortega.[192] |
| 2–3 June |  Russia |
Moscow | Meeting with President Vladimir Putin.[193] |
| 17 June |  Vatican City |
Vatican City | Meeting with Pope Francis.[194] |
| 26 June |  Haiti |
Port-au-Prince | Meeting with President Michel Martelly.[195] |
| 29 June | Nicaragua |
Managua | Guest at the Petrocaribe summit.[196] |
| 3 July |  Belarus |
Minsk | Meeting with President Alexander Lukashenko.[197] |
| 30 August |  Suriname |
Paramaribo | Attended the UNASUR summit.[198] |
2014
| Date | Place | Areas visited | Main purpose |
|---|---|---|---|
| 28–29 January |  Cuba |
Havana | Guest at the CELAC Summit.[199] |
| 24 September |  United States |
New York City | Guest at the general debate of the United Nations session period.[200] |
2015
| Date | Place | Areas visited | Main purpose |
|---|---|---|---|
| 10 January |  Iran |
Tehran | Visit to OPEC member states because of the fall in oil prices.[201] |
| 11–12 January |  Saudi Arabia |
Jeddah | Working visit.[202] |
| 22 January | Bolivia |
La Paz | Guest at the third presidential inauguration of Evo Morales.[203] |
| 8 May | Russia |
Moscow | Celebrations of the 70th Victory Day (9 May).[204] |
| 30 August |  Vietnam |
Hanoi | Working visit.[205] |
| 3 September |  China |
Beijing | Attended the 2015 China Victory Day Parade.[206] |
| 5 September |  Jamaica |
Kingston | Guest at the 10th Petrocaribe Summit.[207] |
| 23–24 September |  Dominica |
Roseau | Meeting with Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit.[208] |
| 25 September |  Saint Kitts and Nevis |
Basseterre | Working visit.[208] |
| 16 October | Suriname |
Paramaribo | Working visit.[209] |
| 17 October |  Antigua and Barbuda |
Saint John's | Meeting with Prime Minister Gaston Browne.[210] |
| 23 November | Iran |
Tehran | 3rd Gas Exporting Countries Forum Summit.[211] |
2016
| Date | Place | Areas visited | Main purpose |
|---|---|---|---|
| 18 March | Cuba |
Havana | Meeting with President Raúl Castro, decorated with the Order José Martí.[212] |
| 21–22 May | Jamaica |
Kingston | Meeting with Prime Minister Andrew Holness.[213] |
| 23 May |  Trinidad and Tobago |
Port of Spain | Meeting with Prime Minister Keith Rowley.[214] |
| 9–13 October |  Turkey |
Istanbul | World Energy Council.[215] |
| 22–23 October | Iran |
Tehran | International tour to boost oil prices.[216][217] |
| 23 October | Saudi Arabia |
Riyadh | |
| 24 October |  Qatar |
Doha | |
| 24 October | Vatican City |
Vatican City | Meeting with Pope Francis.[218] |
| 4 December | Cuba |
Havana | Guest at the state funeral of Fidel Castro.[219] |
2017
| Date | Place | Areas visited | Main purpose |
|---|---|---|---|
| 15 August | Cuba |
Havana | Working visit. Meeting with General Secretary Raúl Castro. Visited the tomb of Fidel Castro at Santa Ifigenia Cemetery.[220] |
| 9 September |  Kazakhstan |
Astana | 1st Summit of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.[221] |
| 4 October | Russia |
Moscow | International energy forum, discussion of Venezuelan debt restructuring.[222] |
| 5–6 October | Turkey |
Ankara | Meeting with President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.[223] |
2018
| Date | Place | Areas visited | Main purpose |
|---|---|---|---|
| 21–22 April | Cuba |
Havana | Meeting with President Miguel Díaz-Canel.[224] |
| 13–16 September | China |
Beijing | Meeting with President Xi Jinping.[225] |
| 26 September | United States |
New York City | Delivered a speech in the general debate of the United Nations session period.[226] |
| 31 October | Cuba |
Havana | Meeting with General Secretary Raúl Castro.[227] |
| 1 December |  Mexico |
Mexico City | Guest at the presidential inauguration of Andrés Manuel López Obrador.[228] |
| 4 December | Russia |
Moscow | Review of bilateral relations.[229] |
2019
2022
| Date | Place | Areas visited | Main purpose |
|---|---|---|---|
| 10 January | Nicaragua |
Managua | Guest at the fourth inauguration of Daniel Ortega.[232] |
| 7 June | Turkey |
Ankara | Review of bilateral relations.[233] |
| 8 June |  Algeria |
Algiers | Meeting with President Abdelmadjid Tebboune.[234] |
| 11–12 June | Iran |
Tehran | Meeting with President Ebrahim Raisi.[235] |
| 13–14 June |  Kuwait |
Kuwait City | Working visit.[236] |
| 15 June | Qatar |
Doha | Meeting with Emir Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani.[237] |
| 6–18 November |  Egypt |
Sharm El Sheikh | 2022 United Nations Climate Change Conference.[238] |
2023
.jpg)
| Date | Place | Areas visited | Main purpose |
|---|---|---|---|
| 16 February |  Colombia |
Cúcuta | Signing of a Partial Scope Agreement of a Commercial Nature.[239] |
| 6 June | Saudi Arabia |
Jeddah | Working visit.[240] |
| 8–13 September | China |
Beijing | Meeting with President Xi Jinping.[241] |
| 22 October | Mexico |
Palenque | Summit on migration.[242] |
| 14 December |  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines |
Kingstown | Meeting with President of Guyana Irfaan Ali, to discuss the Essequibo crisis.[243] |
2024
Opposition
2014–present: Venezuelan protests
Since 2014, a series of protests, political demonstrations, and civil insurrection began in Venezuela due to the country's high levels of violence, inflation, and chronic shortages of basic goods[245][246] attributed to economic policies such as strict price controls.[45][247] Maduro's government saw the protests as an undemocratic coup d'etat attempt[248] orchestrated by "fascist opposition leaders and the United States".[249]
If they want to march every day, go ahead and march ... I will use the iron fist granted to me by Chávez. Make no mistake about me. I am willing to do anything to defend the homeland, its sovereignty and our people.
Although Maduro, a former trade union leader, says he supports peaceful protesting,[251] the Venezuelan government has been widely condemned for its handling of the protests. Venezuelan authorities have reportedly gone beyond the use of rubber pellets and tear gas to instances of live ammunition use and torture of arrested protestors, according to organizations like Amnesty International[252] and Human Rights Watch,[253] while the United Nations[254][255][256] has accused the Venezuelan government of politically-motivated arrests, most notably former Chacao mayor and leader of Popular Will, Leopoldo Lopez, who has used the controversial charges of murder and inciting violence against him to protest the government's "criminalization of dissent."[257][258][259]
Protests dwindled through 2015 and into 2016, though a movement to recall Maduro rekindled anti-government sentiment among Venezuelans,[citation needed] culminating with over one million protesting nationwide on September 1, 2016.[260][261] Protests since then have continued, especially due to controversies surrounding the recall movement and the continued socioeconomic hardships Venezuelans face on a daily basis.[citation needed]
Recall referendum project
The process to hold a recall referendum to vote on recalling Maduro was started on May 2, 2016. On that date, opposition leaders in Venezuela handed in a petition to the National Electoral Council (CNE) that started a several stage process.[262] As of July 2016, the Venezuelan government had stated that if enough signatures were collected, a recall vote would be held no sooner than 2017.[263]
Initial petition
On May 2, 2016, opposition leaders in Venezuela handed in a petition calling for a recall referendum. On June 21, 2016, the BBC reported that signatures for a referendum to recall Maduro were being recorded by the National Electoral Council (CNE), with the process ongoing for several days. The petition required 1% of the electorate to endorse it before the next stage of voting could be held.[262] According to opposition leaders, in July during a preliminary signature drive for the recall, the CNE "rejected more than half a million signatures for reasons ranging from unclear handwriting to smudged fingerprints."[264]
In early July 2016, Barack Obama urged Venezuela to allow the recall referendum.[265] On July 5, 2016, the Venezuelan intelligence service detained five opposition activists involved with the recall referendum, with two other activists of the same party, Popular Will, also arrested.[265]
According to a July 27, 2016 article in The Guardian, "Venezuela's opposition has demanded authorities move forward on a referendum to force Nicolás Maduro from office, amid complaints that the government is digging in its heels to delay the process." Several days before protests on the issue at the headquarters of the CNE had been held after the CNE missed a deadline on announcing whether a recent petition had collected enough valid signatures. The government, in response, argued the protestors were part of a plot to topple Maduro. At the time, a poll by Venebarómetro found that "88% of 'likely' voters in a recall would choose to oust Maduro."[266]
Second phase of the referendum
On August 1, 2016, the CNE announced that enough signatures had been validated for the recall process to continue. A date was not set by the CNE for the second phase to take place, which requires raising 20 percent of the electorates' signatures. While opposition leaders pushed for the recall to be held before the end of 2016, allowing a new presidential election to take place, the government vowed a recall would not occur until 2017, ensuring the current vice president would potentially come to power. Reuters reported that the government had launched 9,000 lawsuits alleging fraud in signature collection by that time.[263]
On August 9, 2016, the CNE presented a timeline for the referendum that made it unlikely it would be held before the end of 2016, in part due to a new 90-day verification period for signatures.[264][267] The second stage of the petition was estimated by the CNE to likely take place in October 2016,[267] resulting in a vote likely happening in February 2017.[264] Opposition leaders were reported to be planning a large protest march in response,[267] with leaders accusing the CNE of favoring the incumbent Socialist Party with the wait time.[264] According to Reuters on August 9, "Socialist Party leaders have dismissed the recall effort as fraudulent and noted that the elections council found nearly 10,000 signatures corresponding to people who were deceased."[264]
Early on September 21, 2016, the National Electoral Council set new guidelines for the recall campaign that The Associated Press described as "unfavorable to the opposition."[268] Among other rules, officials announced that signatures would need to be gathered from 20 percent of Venezuelan voters over three days, specifically October 26 until October 28. In addition, officials required campaigners to gather 20 percent from the electorate in each state, although "opposition leaders say they should only have to gather signatures from 20 percent of voters nationwide." The opposition, which had asked for 20,000 voting machines, was granted 5,400 by officials.[268] On September 21, 2016, the National Electoral Council announced the recall referendum would not be held before January 10, meaning new elections would be ruled out in favor of the VP assuming Maduro's place until the end of the term in 2019. The CNE said that the vote "could be held in the middle of the first quarter of 2017."[269]
Suspension of referendum
When this happens there is no democracy. What Venezuela has is dictatorship...
On 21 October 2016, the CNE suspended the referendum only days before preliminary signature-gatherings were to be held.[271] The CNE blamed alleged voter fraud as the reason for the cancellation of the referendum.[271]
Domestic reaction
Opposition leaders responded by calling on protests against the CNE's actions.[271] The day after the government's announcement, several thousand Venezuelans marched through Caracas protesting against the suspension.[272] Demonstrators were led by Lilian Tintori and Patricia Gutiérrez, wives of arrested opposition politicians.[272]
Experts described the suspension as "unconstitutional".[270] Venezuelan constitutional law expert Jose Vicente Haro stated that the move by the Bolivarian government shows no respect for the constitution while the Washington Office on Latin America called the suspension "a setback for democracy".[270]
International reaction
Reuters reported on August 4, 2016 that U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry had stated that "we encourage Venezuela to embrace the recall not in a delayed way that pushes it into next year, but to do this as a sign of respect for the constitution of the country and the needs of the people of the country."[273] On August 11, 2016, 15 countries in the Organization of American States released a joint statement urging for the referendum to be held "without delay," to "contribute to the quick and effective resolution of the current political, economic and social difficulties in the country."[274]
Presidential crisis
The Venezuelan presidential crisis was a political crisis concerning the leadership and legitimate president of Venezuela between 2019 and 2023, with the nation and the world divided in support for Nicolás Maduro or Juan Guaidó.
Venezuela is engulfed in a political and economic crisis which has led to seven million people leaving since 2015. The process and results of the 2018 presidential elections were widely disputed.[275][276] The opposition-majority National Assembly declared Maduro a usurper of the presidency on the day of his second inauguration and disclosed a plan to set forth its president Guaidó as the succeeding acting president under article 233 of the Venezuelan Constitution.[276][277] A week later, the Supreme Tribunal of Justice declared that the presidency of the National Assembly was the "usurper" of authority and declared the body to be unconstitutional.[276] Minutes after Maduro took the oath as president, the Organization of American States (OAS) approved a resolution declaring Maduro's presidency illegitimate and urging new elections.[278] Meetings of the OAS on 24 January and the United Nations Security Council on 26 January were held but no consensus reached.[279] During the 49th General Assembly of the Organization of American States on 27 June, Guaidó's presidency was recognized by the organization.[280] Guaidó and the National Assembly declared he was acting president and swore himself in on 23 January.[281]
At his peak, Guaidó was recognized as legitimate by about 60 countries, despite never running as president; Maduro by about 20 countries.[282][283][284] However, Guaidó's international support waned.[285] Support followed geopolitical lines, with Russia, China, Cuba, Iran, Syria, and Turkey supporting Maduro, while most Western and Latin American countries supported Guaidó.[282][286][287] Support for Guaidó began to decline when an uprising attempt in 2019 failed.[288][289] Following this failure, representatives of Guaidó and Maduro began mediation.[290] After a second meeting in Norway, no deal was reached.[291] In July 2019, negotiations started again in Barbados.[292][293][294] In September, Guaidó announced the end of dialogue following a forty-day absence by the Maduro government as a protest against US sanctions. In March 2020, the US proposed a transitional government that would exclude Maduro and Guaidó from the presidency.[295] U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo said the US would lift sanctions if Maduro agreed to organize elections that did not include him.[296] Guaidó accepted the proposal,[297] while Venezuela's foreign minister, Jorge Arreaza, rejected it.[298]
By January 2020, efforts by Guaidó to create a transitional government had been unsuccessful and Maduro continued to control state institutions.[299][300][301] In January 2021, the European Union stopped recognizing Guaidó as president, but still did not recognize Maduro as president;[302] the European Parliament reaffirmed its recognition of Guaidó as president,[303][304] and the EU threatened with further sanctions.[302] After the announcement of regional elections in 2021, Guaidó announced a "national salvation agreement" and proposed negotiation with Maduro, with a schedule for free and fair elections, with international observers, in exchange for lifting sanctions.[305]
In December 2022, three of the four main opposition political parties backed and approved a plan to dissolve the interim government and create a commission of five members to manage foreign assets, as deputies sought a united strategy ahead of the 2024 Venezuelan presidential election,[306][307] stating that the interim government had failed to achieve the goals it had set.[308]
2019 Venezuelan protests
The 2019 Venezuelan protests were a collection of protests that were organized, since 11 January, as a coordinated effort to remove Nicolás Maduro from the presidency. Demonstrations began following Maduro's controversial second inauguration, developing into a presidential crisis between Maduro and National Assembly president Juan Guaidó. The protests also included counter-demonstrations organized by those who support Maduro.
The protests partially resumed early in 2020, but were suspended due to the arrival of COVID-19 to Venezuela.
2019 Venezuelan uprising attempt
On 30 April 2019, during the Venezuelan presidential crisis, a group of several dozen military personnel[309] and civilians joined Juan Guaidó in his call for the removal of Nicolás Maduro as part of what he labeled "Operation Freedom" (Spanish: Operación Libertad). Reuters reported an "uneasy peace" by the afternoon of 30 April.[309] During the unrest, opposition leader Leopoldo López was freed from house arrest after being imprisoned for five years.[310] Manuel Cristopher Figuera, the head of the Bolivarian Intelligence Service, denounced the Maduro government and was dismissed from his position[311] before going into hiding.[312] At least 25 military men who opposed Maduro sought asylum at the Brazilian embassy in Caracas.[313]
Overthrow attempts
On 3 May 2020 Venezuelan security forces prevented an attempt to overthrow Maduro by armed deserters from Venezuela's security forces. The attempt, named Operation Gideon, was organised by former United States Army Special Forces operator Jordan Goudreau and the men were trained in Colombia. Goudreau claimed the operation had involved 60 troops, including two former US special forces members.[314][315] The Venezuelan government claimed the United States and its Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) were responsible for the operation and had support from Colombia.[316] Juan Guaidó denied involvement in the operation, however, Goudreau claimed that Guaidó and two political advisers had signed a contract with him for $213 million in October 2019.[315]
2022 Venezuelan recall referendum project
On 26 January 2022, the Venezuelan opposition promoted a recall referendum against the Nicolás Maduro government. The National Electoral Council ordered the collection of the required signatures, 20% of the electoral registry, to be carried out in a single day, the equivalent of having to collect four million signatures in twelve hours, which resulted in not reaching the required signatures, the referendum being declared inadmissible and making it impossible to summon for another recall for Maduro's second presidential term.[317]
2024 Venezuelan presidential election protests
Protests followed the 2024 Venezuelan presidential election on 28 July, in response to voter fraud and other irregularities during the election cycle, as part of the 2024 Venezuelan political crisis. The election and unrest occurred in the context of the ongoing crisis in Venezuela.
Statistical analyses by multiple organizations[318] indicated that the election was won convincingly by Edmundo Gonzalez but those results have not been recognized by incumbent Nicolás Maduro; the Democratic Unitary Platform (PUD), an alliance of opposition parties, released vote tallies at the precinct level indicating that González won by a wide margin, while the government-controlled National Electoral Council (CNE) announced an unsubstantiated result, without any precinct-level tallies, stating Maduro won. Both candidates claimed victory, while many countries recognized González as the winner.
Demonstrations to uphold the results of the election, along with vigils for political prisoners, occurred worldwide after the July election. Spontaneous protests broke out immediately after the election, while later rallies were organized by the Venezuelan opposition;[319] Maduro claimed the opposition was encouraging a coup and has charged demonstraters with terrorism, while initiating an unprecedented crackdown.[320] Maduro's security forces have gone door-to-door seeking to arrest protesters, poll workers and members of the opposition in what Maduro has referred to as Operation Tun Tun, and armed bands of Maduro supporters known as colectivos have joined security forces in repressing dissent. As of 14 August 2024, at least 2,200 persons are reported to have been arrested, and 25 killed;[321] Maduro has announced plans to continue to seek the arrest of dissenters, and to rehabilitate two prisons to house those detained.
The repression has been widely condemned by international groups; Amnesty International penned an open letter requesting urgent action from the International Criminal Court (ICC),[322] on the basis of an ongoing ICC investigation of possible crimes against humanity under Maduro's regime.
Capture of Maduro
See also
- Second presidency of Nicolás Maduro
- Bolivarian Revolution
- Venezuelan protests (2014-present)
- Second inauguration of Nicolás Maduro
- Bolivarian Revolution
- Venezuelan presidential crisis
- International Criminal Court investigation in Venezuela
- Sanctions during the Venezuelan crisis
- 2024 Venezuelan presidential election protests
Notes
- He was sworn in as Acting President on 5 March 2013 following the Death of Hugo Chávez, but his acting presidency ended on 19 April 2013 when he won the 2013 elections.
- He was captured by the United States and is being judged in US courts. His vice president Delcy Rodriguez was appointed as interim president two days later.
- Acting Vice President from 8 March to 19 April 2013.
- Also called the Second Maduro Government, Second Maduro Cabinet, Second Government of Nicolás Maduro, or the Second Cabinet of Nicolás Maduro