Language isolate

Language that has no demonstrable genetic relationship with other languages From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A language isolate, sometimes called an isolated language, is a language that has no demonstrable genetic relationship with any other language.[1][2] That is, an isolate is a family of one. Basque in Europe, Ainu (if counted as a single language) and Burushaski in Asia, Sandawe and Hadza in Africa, Haida and Zuni in North America, Kanoê and Trumai in South America, Tiwi and possibly Porome in Oceania are examples of language isolates. The exact number of language isolates is unknown due to insufficient data on several languages; that is, there is a fuzzy boundary between language isolates and unclassified languages. Researchers may have differing criteria on how much comparative work needs to be done before concluding that a language is an isolate.[3]

Locations of a few relatively well-known examples of language isolates.

"Isolate" does not mean that a language has no relatives, only that any relationships are too distant to be detectable. Most established families of oral languages – including isolates – are assumed to be related to each other at a time depth too great for us to reconstruct. (See linguistic monogenesis.)

Another possibility is that the language arose independently and does not share a common linguistic genesis with any other language. This possibility is often posited for sign languages that are thought to have developed independently of other oral or sign languages.[1][4]

In some classifications, a language may be counted as an isolate once all known relatives are extinct. An example is the Ket language spoken in central Siberia, which belongs to the wider Yeniseian family, all the others of which are now extinct. Ket is thus an isolate in the current context. However, most classifications do not count Ket as a language isolate because it does have demonstrable relatives, even if they no longer exist except in recorded data. If those relatives had gone extinct without being recorded, then Ket would be an isolate in the stricter sense.

Isolates may be reclassified as larger families if some of their purported dialects are later judged to be sufficiently different from each other to count as different languages. Examples include the erstwhile isolates of Japanese and Georgian: Japanese is now considered to be the Japonic language family (which includes the Ryukyuan languages), and Georgian to be the Kartvelian language family.

There is a difference between language isolates and unclassified languages, but they can be difficult to differentiate when data is limited.[1] If comparative efforts do prove fruitful, a language previously considered an isolate may be reclassified as being part of a larger language family, as happened with the Yanyuwa language of northern Australia, now placed in the Pama–Nyungan family.[5] Since linguists do not always agree on whether a genetic relationship has been demonstrated, it is often disputed whether a particular language is an isolate.

Genetic relationships

Main article: Genetic relationship (linguistics)

A genetic relationship is when two different languages are descended from a common ancestral language.[6] This is what makes up a language family, which is a set of languages for which sufficient evidence exists to demonstrate that they descend from a single ancestral language and are therefore genetically related.[1] For example, English is related to other Indo-European languages and Mandarin Chinese is related to other Sino-Tibetan languages. By this criterion, each language isolate constitutes a family of its own.[6]

Isolates at the family level are not to be confused with lower-level isolates, single languages that form a primary branch of a larger language family. Examples are Armenian, an isolate within the Indo-European family, and Paiwan, an isolate within the Austronesian family.

Extinct isolates

Caution is required when speaking of extinct languages as language isolates. Despite their great age, Sumerian and Elamite can be safely classified as isolates, as the languages are well enough documented that, if modern relatives existed, they would be recognizably related.[7] A language thought to be an isolate may turn out to be related to other languages once enough material is recovered, but this is unlikely for extinct languages whose written records have not been preserved.[1]

Many extinct languages are very poorly attested, which may lead to them being considered unclassified languages (or even unclassifiable languages) rather than language isolates. This occurs when linguists do not have enough information on a language to classify it as either a language isolate or as a part of another language family.[1]

Isolates v. unclassified languages

Unclassified languages are different from language isolates in that they have no demonstrable genetic relationships to other languages due to a lack of sufficient data. In order to be considered a language isolate, a language needs to have sufficient data for comparisons with other languages through methods of historical-comparative linguistics to show that it does not have any detectable genetic relationships.[1]

Many extinct and living languages today are very poorly attested, and the fact that they cannot be linked to other languages may be a reflection of linguists' poor knowledge of them. Hattic, Gutian, and Kassite are all considered unclassified languages, but their status is disputed by a minority of linguists who count them as isolates.[8] Many extinct languages of the Americas such as Cayuse and Majena may likewise have been isolates.[9]

Sign language isolates

Further information: Deaf-community sign language and Village sign language

A number of sign languages have arisen independently, without any ancestral language, and thus are true language isolates. (See linguistic polygenesis.) These include Nicaraguan Sign Language, a well-documented case of what has happened in schools for the deaf in many countries.[10] In Tanzania, for example, there are seven schools for the deaf, each with its own sign language with no connection to any other language.[11] Sign languages have also developed outside schools, in communities with high incidences of deafness, such as Kata Kolok in Bali, and half a dozen sign languages of the hill tribes in Thailand including the Ban Khor Sign Language,[12][13] or in cities when people immigrate from the countryside and deaf children meet other deaf people for the first time, even without attending a school for the deaf.

These and more are all presumed to be absolute isolates or small independent families, because many deaf communities are made up of people whose hearing parents do not use sign language, and have manifestly, as shown by the language itself, not borrowed their sign language from other deaf communities during the recorded history of these languages.[12]

Language isolates by continent

Below is a list of language isolates and unclassified or poorly languages, arranged by continent, along with notes on possible relationshipts to other languages.

The status column indicates the degree of endangerment of the language, according to the definitions of the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger.[14] "Vibrant" languages are those in full use by speakers of every generation, with consistent native acquisition by children. "Vulnerable" languages have a similarly wide base of native speakers, but a restricted use and the long-term risk of language shift. "Endangered" languages are either acquired irregularly or spoken only by older generations. "Moribund" languages have only a few remaining native speakers, with no new acquisition, highly restricted use, and near-universal multilingualism. "Extinct" languages have no native speakers, but are sufficiently documented to be classified as isolates.

Africa

Further information: Languages of Africa § Unclassified languages

All of Africa's languages had once been gathered into four major phyla: Afroasiatic, Niger–Congo, Nilo-Saharan and Khoisan.[15] Of these, only Afroasiatic has been established as a valid family, and even there there are doubts that some of the peripheral languages are actually Afroasiatic. Khoisan has been completely abandoned, the two major branches of Niger–Congo (as well as several smaller branches) cannot be shown to be related, and there has been persistent doubt about Nilo-Saharan.[16][17] Data for several African languages, especially extinct ones like Kwisi, is not sufficient for classification. In addition, Jalaa, Shabo, Laal, Kujargé, and a few other languages within Nilo-Saharan and Afroasiatic-speaking areas may turn out to be isolates upon further investigation. Defaka and Ega are highly divergent languages located within Niger–Congo-speaking areas, and may also possibly be language isolates.[18]

More information Speakers, Status ...
Language Speakers Status Countries Comments
Bangime 3,500 Vibrant Mali Spoken in the Bandiagara Escarpment. Used as an anti-language.[19]
Bayot 35,000 Senegal, Guinea-Bissau Basic vocabulary shows no relation to other languages.[20]
Gule Extinct Sudan Although this language is poorly known, Zamponi (2025) unambiguously classified it as an isolate.[21] Not enough evidence exists to classify it as one of the Koman languages.[22]
Hadza 1,000 Vulnerable Tanzania Spoken on the southern shore of Lake Eyasi in the southwest of Arusha Region. Once listed as an outlier among the Khoisan languages.[23] Language use is vigorous, though there are fewer than 1,000 speakers.[24]
Jalaa Extinct Nigeria Strongly influenced by Dikaka, but most vocabulary is very unusual.[25]
Laal 750 Moribund Chad Spoken in three villages along the Chari River in Moyen-Chari Region. Poorly known. Also known as Gori. Possibly a distinct branch of Niger–Congo, Chadic of the Afroasiatic languages, or mixed.[citation needed]
Mpra Extinct Ghana It is known only from a 70-word list given in a 1931 article. Blench (2007) considers it to be a possible language isolate.[26]
Ongota 12 Moribund Ethiopia Likely isolate.[27][28][29]
Sandawe 60,000 Vibrant Tanzania Spoken in the northwest of Dodoma Region. Tentatively linked to the Khoe languages.[23]
Shabo 400 Endangered Ethiopia Spoken in Anderaccha, Gecha, and Kaabo of the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region. Linked to the Gumuz and Koman families in the proposed Komuz branch of the Nilo-Saharan languages.[30]
Siamou 40,000 Vibrant Burkina Faso, Mali, Ivory Coast Traditionally classified as Kru. Due to lack of evidence or any resemblance is classified now as an isolate.[31]
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Asia

More information Speakers, Status ...
Language Speakers Status Countries Comments
Ainu 25,000 Endangered Japan Spoken on the island of Hokkaido in Japan. Sometimes hypothesized to be related to Korean and Japanese,[32] while at other times proposed to be a branch of Altaic.[33][34]
Bugun 900 Endangered India Possible language isolate spoken by the Bugun people of Arunachal Pradesh in India.[35]
Burushaski 130,000[36] Vulnerable Pakistan, India Spoken in the Yasin Valley and Hunza Valley of Gilgit-Baltistan and Hari Parbat of Jammu and Kashmir. Linked to Caucasian languages,[37] Indo-European,[38][39] and Na-Dene languages[40][41] in various proposals.
Elamite Extinct Iran Formerly spoken in Elam, along the northeast coast of the Persian Gulf. Attested from around 2800 BC to 300 BC.[42] Some propose a relationship to the Dravidian languages (see Elamo-Dravidian), but this is not well-supported.[43]
Hruso 3,000 Vulnerable India Possible language isolate spoken by the Hruso people of Arunachal Pradesh in India.[35]
Kusunda 23[44] Moribund Nepal Spoken in Gandaki Province. The recent discovery of a few speakers shows that it is not demonstrably related to anything else.[45]
Miju 18,000 Endangered India Possible language isolate spoken by the Miju Mishmi of Arunachal Pradesh in India.[35]
Nihali 2,500[46] Spoken in northern Maharashtra along the Tapti River. Strong lexical Munda influence from Korku,[47] as well as Dravidian and Indo-Aryan languages. Used as anti-language by speakers.[48]
Nivkh 200 Moribund Russia Also known as Gilyak. Spoken in the lower Amur River basin and in the northern part of Sakhalin. Dialects sometimes considered two languages.[49] Has been linked to Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages.[50]
'Ole 1 Moribund Bhutan ʼOle, also called ʼOlekha or Black Mountain Monpa, is a moribund, possibly Sino-Tibetan language spoken natively by 1 person in the Black Mountains of Wangdue Phodrang and Trongsa Districts in western Bhutan. The term ʼOle refers to a clan of speakers.[51]
Puroik 20,000 Vulnerable India, China Possible language isolate spoken by the Puroik people of Arunachal Pradesh in India and of Lhünzê County, Tibet, in China.[35]
Sumerian Extinct Iraq Spoken in Mesopotamia until around 1800 BC, but used as a classical language until 100 AD.[52] Long-extinct, but well-attested language of ancient Sumer.
Tambora Indonesia Poorly documented, extinct since the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, basic vocabulary points towards it being an isolate.
Vedda 300[53] Endangered Sri Lanka Highly influenced by Sinhala and Tamil to the extent some linguists have classed it as a creole language.
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Oceania

Current research considers that the "Papuasphere" centered in New Guinea includes as many as 37 isolates.[54] (The more is known about these languages in the future, the more likely it is for these languages to be later assigned to a known language family.) To these, one must add several isolates found among non-Pama-Nyungan languages of Australia:[55]

More information Speakers, Status ...
Language Speakers Status Countries Comments
Abinomn 300 Vibrant Indonesia Spoken in the far north of New Guinea. Also known as Bas or Foia. Language is considered safe by UNESCO but endangered by Ethnologue.[56]
Abun 3,000 Spoken in the northern area of Bird's Head Peninsula located in the province of Southwest Papua. Linked to West Papuan languages but Palmer (2018), Ethnologue, and Glottolog consider it an isolate.[57][58][59]
Anêm 800 Papua New Guinea Spoken on the northwest coast of New Britain.[60] Perhaps related to Yélî Dnye and Ata.[61]
Ata 2,000 Spoken in the central highlands of New Britain. Also known as Wasi. Perhaps related to Yélî Dnye and Anem.[62][63]
Burmeso 250 Indonesia Spoken in Mamberamo Raya Regency, Papua Province. Linked to West Papuan languages but Stephen Wurm and William A. Foley consider it an isolate.[64]
Busa 370 Papua New Guinea Spoken in Sandaun Province, northwestern Papua New Guinea. Added to Senu River.[65]
Giimbiyu Extinct Australia Spoken in the northern part of Arnhem Land until the early 1980s. Sometimes considered a small language family consisting of Mengerrdji, Urningangk and Erre.[66] Part of a proposal for the undemonstrated Arnhem Land language family.
Isirawa 1,800 Vibrant Papua New Guinea Whilst classed as a Kwerbic language, it only shares 20% of its vocabulary and is considered by some linguists to be an isolate.
Kol 4,000 Spoken in the northeastern part of New Britain. Possibly related to the poorly known Sulka, or the Baining languages, suggested as part of the East Papuan languages.[67][68]
Kuot 1,500 Spoken on New Ireland. Also known as Panaras. Suggested to form part of the East Papuan family.[68]
Lavukaleve 1,700 Vulnerable Solomon Islands Classified as an isolate by Endangered Languages Project;[69] historically classified as a Central Solomon language, but little evidence was found of a relationship by Muller.[70]
Malak-Malak 10 Moribund Australia Spoken in northern Australia. Often considered part of one Northern Daly family together with Tyeraity. Used to be considered genetically related to the Wagaydyic languages, but nowadays they are considered genetically distinct.[71]
Marrgu Extinct Marrgu had been assumed to be an Iwaidjan language like its neighbours. However, Evans (2006) has produced evidence that it was a language isolate, with possible connection to the extinct and poorly attested Wurrugu.[72]
Mawes Indonesia Likely isolate.[73][74]
Maybrat 25,000 Vibrant Spoken in the central area of the Bird's Head Peninsula located in the province of Southwest Papua. Sometimes linked to West Papuan languages but others consider it an isolate.
Molof 230 Vulnerable Usher (2020) tentatively suggests it may be related to Pauwasi languages.[75] However, Søren Wichmann (2018) and Foley (2018) consider it to be an isolate.[76][77]
Mpur 5,000 Vibrant Spoken in the Mpur and Amberbaken Districts, Tambrauw Regency on the north coast of the Bird's Head Peninsula.
Murrinh-patha 2,100[78] Australia Spoken on the eastern coast of Joseph Bonaparte Gulf in the Top End. The proposed linkage to Ngan'gityemerri in one Southern Daly family[79] is generally accepted to be valid.
Ngan'gityemerri 26 Moribund Spoken in the Top End along the Daly River. The proposed linkage to Murrinh-patha in one Southern Daly family[79] is generally accepted to be valid.
Porome 1,200 Vibrant Papua New Guinea Spoken in 6 villages in West Kikori Rural LLG and East Kikori Rural LLG of Gulf Province, near the Aird Hills and Kikori River tributaries.
Pyu 250 Vulnerable Spoken in Green River Rural LLG in Sandaun Province, near the Indonesian border. Linked to neighboring Left May and Amto-Musan in a proposed Arai-Samaia family.[80]
Sulka 2,500 Vibrant Spoken across the eastern end of New Britain. Suggested to form part of the East Papuan family.[68]
Tause 500 Vulnerable Indonesia Was classified to encourage research as a Lakes Plain language, but there has been little evidence so has been classed as an isolate.
Tayap <50 Moribund Papua New Guinea Formerly spoken in the village of Gapun. Links to Lower Sepik languages and Torricelli languages have been explored, but the general consensus among linguists is that it is an isolate unrelated to surrounding languages.[81]
Tiwi 2,100[82] Vulnerable Australia Spoken in the Tiwi Islands in the Timor Sea. Traditionally Tiwi is polysynthetic, but the Tiwi spoken by younger generations is not.[83]
Touo 1,900 Solomon Islands Classified as an isolate by Glottolog.[84]
Umbugarla Extinct Australia Possibly a language isolate. Ngomburr likely a dialect.
Usku 20 ~ 160 Moribund Indonesia Foley (2018) classifies it as a language isolate.[77]
Wagiman 11 Australia Spoken in the southern part of the Top End. May be distantly related to the Yangmanic languages,[85] which might in turn be a member of the Macro-Gunwinyguan family,[55] but neither link has been demonstrated.
Wardaman 50 Spoken in the southern part of the Top End. The extinct and poorly attested Dagoman and Yangman dialects are sometimes treated as separate languages, forming a Yangmanic family, to which Wagiman may be distantly related.[85] Possibly a member of the Macro-Gunwinyguan family,[55] but this has yet to be demonstrated.
Yele 5,000 Vibrant Papua New Guinea Stebbins et al. (2018) classifies Yélî Dnye as an isolate.[86] They explain similarities with Austronesian as being due to contact and diffusion.
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Europe

More information Speakers, Status ...
Language Speakers Status Countries Comments
Basque 806,000 (2021),[87] 434,000 passive speakers[88] Vulnerable Spain, France Natively known as Euskara, the Basque language is found in the historical region of the Basque Country between France and Spain. It has no known living relatives, although Aquitanian is commonly regarded as related to or a direct ancestor of Basque. Some linguists have claimed similarities with various languages of the Caucasus[89][90] that are indicative of a relationship, while others have proposed a relation to Iberian[91] and to the hypothetical Dené–Caucasian languages.[92]
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North America

More information Speakers, Status ...
Language Speakers Status Countries Comments
Alsea Extinct United States Poorly attested. Spoken along the central coast of Oregon until the early 1950s.[93] Sometimes regarded as two separate languages. Often included in the Penutian hypothesis in a Coast Oregon Penutian branch.[94]
Atakapa Spoken on the Gulf coast of eastern Texas and southwestern Louisiana until the early 1900s. Often linked to Muskogean in a Gulf hypothesis.[95]
Cayuse Spoken in Oregon until the 1930s. Classified as a language isolate per Campbell (2024).[96]
Chimariko Spoken in northern California until the 1950s.[97] Part of the Hokan hypothesis.[98]
Chitimacha Well-attested. Spoken along the Gulf coast of southeastern Louisiana until 1940.[99] Possibly in the Totozoquean family of Mesoamerica.[99]
Coahuilteco United States, Mexico Spoken in southern Texas and northeastern Mexico until the 1700s. Part of the Pakawan hypothesis,[100] has been linked to the hypothesised Hokan languages in a larger group.[101]
Cotoname Spoken in extreme southern Texas and northeastern Mexico until c. 1900. Part of the Pakawan hypothesis, has been linked to the hypothesised Hokan languages in a larger group.
Cuitlatec Mexico Spoken in northern Guerrero until the 1960s.[102] Has been proposed to be part of Macro-Chibchan[103] and Uto-Aztecan.[102]
Esselen United States Poorly known. Spoken in the Big Sur region of California until the early 1800s. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.[104]
Haida 13 Moribund Canada, United States Spoken in the Haida Gwaii archipelago off the northwest coast of British Columbia, and the southern islands of the Alexander Archipelago in southeastern Alaska. Some proposals connect it to the Na-Dené languages, but these have fallen into disfavor.[105]
Huave 20,000 Vulnerable Mexico Spoken in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in the southeast of Oaxaca state. Has been linked to various language families, but is still generally considered an isolate.[106]
Karuk 12 Moribund United States Spoken along the Klamath River in northwestern California. Part of the Hokan hypothesis, but little evidence for this.[106]
Keres 13,200 Endangered Spoken in several pueblos throughout New Mexico, including Cochiti and Acoma Pueblos. Has two main dialects: Eastern and Western. Sometimes those two dialects are separated into languages in a Keresan family.[107]
Kutenai 345 Moribund Canada, United States Spoken in the Rockies of northeastern Idaho, northwestern Montana and southeastern British Columbia. Attempts have been made to place it in a Macro-Algic or Macro-Salishan family, but these have not gained significant support.[106]
Natchez Extinct United States Spoken in southern Mississippi and eastern Louisiana until 1957.[108] Often linked to Muskogean in a Gulf hypothesis.[109] Attempts at revival have produced six people with some fluency.[110]
Purépecha 142,500[111] Endangered Mexico Spoken in the north of Michoacán state. Language of the ancient Tarascan kingdom. Sometimes regarded as two languages.[106]
Salinan Extinct United States Spoken along the south-central coast of California. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.[112]
Seri 720 Vulnerable Mexico Spoken along the coast of the Gulf of California, in the southwest of Sonora state. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.[113]
Siuslaw Extinct United States Spoken on the southwest coast of Oregon until 1960. Likely related to Alsea, Coosan languages, or possibly the Wintuan languages. Part of the Penutian hypothesis.[94]
Takelma Spoken in western Oregon until mid 20th century.[114] Part of the Penutian hypothesis.[114]
Timucua Well attested. Spoken in northern Florida and southern Georgia until the mid- to late 1700s. Briefly spoken in Cuba by a migrant community established in 1763. A connection with the poorly known Tawasa language has been suggested, but this may be a dialect.[115]
Tonkawa Spoken in central and northern Texas until the early 1940s.[116]
Tunica Spoken in western Mississippi, northeastern Louisiana, and southeastern Arkansas until 1948.[117]
Washo 20 Moribund Spoken along the Truckee River in the Sierra Nevada of eastern California and northwestern Nevada. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.[118]
Yana Extinct Well-attested. Spoken in northern California until 1916. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.[119]
Yuchi Spoken in Oklahoma, but formerly spoken in eastern Tennessee. A connection to the Siouan languages has been proposed.[120] The last native speaker died in 2021, but there is an ongoing revitalization project that has trained a small number of L2s.
Zuni 9,600 Vulnerable Spoken in Zuni Pueblo in northwestern New Mexico. Links to Penutian[121] and Keres[122] have been proposed.
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South America

More information Speakers, Status ...
Language Speakers Status Countries Comments
Aikanã 150 Endangered Brazil Spoken in the Amazon of eastern Rondônia. Links to Kanoê and Kwaza have been tentatively proposed.[123] Arawakan has been suggested.[citation needed]
Mato Grosso Arára Extinct Spoken in Mato Grosso, Brazil until sometime in the 20th century.
Andaqui Colombia Spoken in the southern highlands of Colombia until the 1970s. It has been linked to the Paezan or Barbacoan languages, but no connections have been sufficiently demonstrated. Adelaar (2004) classifies it as a language isolate, but lists similarities with Páez.[124]
Andoque 370 Endangered Colombia, Peru Spoken on the upper reaches of the Japurá River. Extinct in Peru. Possibly Witotoan.[125]
Arutani 6 Moribund Brazil, Venezuela Spoken along the Paragua River and Uraricaá River in the far southern area of Bolívar State, Venezuela and the far northern area of Roraima, Brazil. Part of the proposed Arutani–Sape language family but more likely to be an isolate.[126][127]
Betoi Extinct Venezuela Spoken in the Apure River basin near the Colombian border until the 19th century. Paezan and Tucanoan affiliation have been suggested.[125]
Candoshi-Shapra 1,100 Endangered Peru Spoken along the Chapuli, Huitoyacu, Pastaza, and Morona river valleys in southwestern Loreto. Has been linked to various language families, but no agreement exists on its classification.[128]
Canichana Extinct Bolivia Spoken in the Llanos de Moxos region of Beni Department until around 2000. Connections with various language families have been proposed, none widely accepted.[129]
Cayuvava 12 Moribund Spoken in the Amazon west of Mamore River, north of Santa Ana del Yacuma in the Beni Department.[130]
Chimane 5,300 Vulnerable Spoken along the Beni river in Beni Department. Also spelled Tsimané. Sometimes split into multiple languages in a Moséten family. Linked to the Chonan languages in a Moseten-Chonan hypothesis.[131]
Chiquitano 2,400 Endangered Bolivia, Brazil Spoken in the eastern part of Santa Cruz department and the southwestern part of Mato Grosso state. Has been linked to the Macro-Jê family.[132][133]
Chono Extinct Chile Spoken in Chonos Archipelago and Chiloé Archipelago until around 1875. Glottolog and Campbell (2024) characterize it as a language isolate.
Cofán 1,500 Endangered Colombia, Ecuador Spoken in northern Sucumbíos Province and southern Putumayo Department. Also called A'ingae.[134] Sometimes classified as Chibchan, but the similarities appear to be due to borrowings. Seriously endangered in Colombia.[135]
Culle Extinct Peru Spoken in Peru until the mid-20th century.
Esmeralda Ecuador Spoken in Ecuador by a mixed Black-Indigenous population in the late 19th century.[124]
Guachí Argentina Formerly spoken in Argentina by the Guachí. Linkage has been proposed to the Mataco–Guaicuru language family, however Campbell (2012) classifies it as an isolate.[136]
Guamo Venezuela Spoken in Venezuela until some time after 1778.
Guató 2[137] Moribund Brazil Spoken in the far south of Mato Grosso near the Bolivian border. Has been classified as Macro-Jê, but this is disputed.[138]
Hodï 640 Vulnerable Venezuela Spoken in Amazonas state in Venezuela. Linked with the Macro-Puinavean hypothesis.
Iatê 1,000 Moribund Brazil Spoken in the states of Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, and the northern part of Bahia. Divided into two dialects, Fulniô and Yatê.[139] Sometimes classified as a Macro-Jê language.[140][141]
Irantxe 90 Endangered Spoken by the Irántxe and Mỹky peoples in the state of Mato Grosso in Brazil. Recent descriptions of the language analyze it as a language isolate.[142] According to Arruda (2003), it "bears no similarity with other language families".
Itonama 1 Moribund Bolivia Spoken in the far-eastern part of Beni Department. A relationship to Paezan has been suggested.[143]
Kamëntšá 4,000 Endangered Colombia Spoken in Sibundoy in the Putumayo Department. Also known as Camsa, Coche, Sibundoy, Kamentxa, Kamse, or Camëntsëá.[citation needed]
Kanoê 3 Moribund Brazil Spoken in southeastern Rondônia. Also known as Kapishana. Tentatively linked to Kwaza and Aikanã.[123] Part of a Macro-Paesan proposal.[144]
Kunza Extinct Chile Spoken in areas near Salar de Atacama until the 1950s. Also known as Atacameño. Part of a Macro-Paesan proposal.[144]
Kwaza 25 Moribund Brazil Spoken in eastern Rondônia. Connections have been proposed with Aikanã and Kanoê.[123]
Leco 20 Bolivia Spoken at the foot of the Andes in the department of La Paz.[145]
Máku of Auari Extinct Brazil Spoken on the Brazil–Venezuela border in Roraima until 2000. Also known as Jukude or Maku. Likely language isolate. Has been linked to the Arutani–Sape and the Macro-Puinavean language families.
Mapuche 260,000 Vulnerable Chile, Argentina Spoken in areas of the far-southern Andes and in the Chiloé Archipelago. Also known as Mapudungun, Araucano or Araucanian.[146] Variously part of Andean,[103] Macro-Panoan,[144] or Mataco–Guaicuru[147] proposals. Sometimes Huilliche is treated as a separate language, reclassifying Mapuche into an Araucanian family.[148]
Matanawi Extinct Brazil Spoken on the Castanha River and Madeirinha River in Amazonas in Brazil until the middle of the 20th century. Has been linked to the Mura-Pirahã language.
Mochica Peru Spoken along the northwest coast of Peru and in an inland village until c. 1920. Usually considered to be a language isolate,[136] but has also been hypothesized as belonging to a wider Chimuan language family.
Movima 1,400 Vulnerable Bolivia Spoken in the Llanos de Moxos, in the north of Beni Department. Affiliations with Canichana, Chibcha and Macro-Tucanoan have been proposed, none of these have been proven.[149]
Munichi Extinct Peru Spoken in the southern part of Loreto Region until the late 1990s. Possibly evolved either from a mixed language or a sister language to Proto-Arawak.[150]
Mure Bolivia Formerly spoken in the Jesuit Missions of Moxos in Beni Department. Isolate according to Glottolog, but past proposals include links to Chapacuran[151]
Nasayuwe 60,000 Vulnerable Colombia Spoken in the northern part of Cauca Department. Also known as Páez. Several proposed relationships in the Paezan hypothesis but nothing conclusive.[152]
Omurano Extinct Peru Spoken near the Marañón River until 2006. Linkage to the Saparo–Yawan language family has been proposed.
Oti Brazil Spoken in São Paulo until the early 1900s. Macro-Jê affiliation has been suggested, but not accepted.[153]
Payaguá Argentina, Paraguay Spoken in Argentina and Paraguay by the Payaguá until 1943. Linkage has been proposed to the Mataco–Guaicuru language family, however Campbell (2012) classifies it as an isolate.[136]
Pirahã 380 Vibrant Brazil Spoken along the Maici River in Amazonas, Brazil. The only living dialect of Mura language.
Gününa Küne Extinct Argentina, Chile Spoken in the Pampas region, last speaker died around 1960.[154] Sometimes linked to Het, as part of the Chonan languages.[155] Included in a proposed Macro-Jibaro family.[156]
Puinave 3,000 Endangered Colombia, Venezuela Spoken in 32 communities along the banks of the Inírida River in Guainía Department, Colombia and in 10 communities along the Orinoco River, in the Colombia–Venezuela border region. Generally considered to be a language isolate, but has been linked frequently to Nadahup and Nukak-Kakwa.
Pumé 7,900 Vibrant Venezuela Spoken along the Orinoco, Cinaruco, Meta, and Apure rivers. Linked to the extinct Esmeralda language.[157]
Puquina Extinct Spoken around Lake Titicaca until the 19th century.
Puri Brazil Spoken in Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro states of Brazil until the late 19th century, Formerly considered Macro-Jê, but affiliation has been disproven.[158]
Ramanos Extinct Bolivia Spoken in Moxos Province in Bolivia until the 1790s. Isolate according to Glottolog.[159]
Sapé Venezuela Spoken along the Paragua River and Karuna River in Venezuela until 2018. Also known as Kaliana or Caliana. Part of the proposed Arutani–Sape language family but more likely to be an isolate.
Sechura Peru Spoken in Peru until the late 19th century. Known from only two short wordlists, but linked to the Tallán language.[160]
Tallán Spoken in Peru until the late 19th century. Known from only two short wordlists, but linked to the Sechura language.[161]
Taruma 3 Moribund Brazil, Guyana and Suriname Originally spoken around the mouth of the Rio Negro river, now located in Maruranau village among the Wapishana. Kaufman (1990) proposed it to be distantly related to Katembri, but this relationship has not been repeated in recent surveys of South American languages by Campbell (2012), confirming that this language is an isolate.[162][136]
Taushiro 1 Peru Spoken in the northeastern area of the Loreto province. Linkage to the Saparo–Yawan language family has been proposed.
Tequiraca Extinct Spoken in the central part of Loreto until the 1950s. Also known as Auishiri. A connection with Canichana has been proposed by Kaufman (1994).[163]
Trumai 51 Moribund Brazil Settled on the upper Xingu River. Currently reside in the Xingu National Park in the northern part of Mato Grosso.[164]
Urarina 3,000 Vulnerable Peru Spoken in the central part of the Loreto Region.[165] Part of the Macro-Jibaro proposal.[166]
Waorani 2,000 Ecuador, Peru Also known as Sabela. Spoken between the Napo and Curaray rivers. Could be spoken by several groups living in isolation.[167]
Warao 32,800 Endangered Guyana, Suriname and Venezuela Spoken in the Orinoco Delta.[144]
Xukuru Extinct Brazil Spoken in Pernambuco state, Brazil until the early 20th century. Only attestation is from wordlists collected in the 1950s-60s from rememberers.[168]
Yahgan Chile Spoken in far-southern Tierra del Fuego until 2022. Also called Yámana.[169]
Yuracaré 2,700 Endangered Bolivia Spoken in the foothills of the Andes, in Cochabamba and Beni Departments. Connections to Mosetenan, Pano–Tacanan, Arawakan, and Chonan have been suggested.[170]
Yurumanguí Extinct Colombia Spoken in Colombia until sometime after 1768. Linked with the Hokan languages by Paul Rivet, but this is now rejected.[171]
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