Canaanite and Aramaic seal inscriptions

Seals in the region were initially associated with protective or symbolic functions, and later became administrative tools used to authenticate documents and property. Most are stamp seals, often of scaraboid form, and many are decorated with figural or symbolic motifs in addition to inscriptions.

Most such stamp seals date approximately from the 9th to the 5th centuries BCE.^[1]

The inscriptions are usually brief, most commonly giving the name and patronymic of the seal owner. In some cases, titles, the name of a superior, or a blessing formula are included.

Some of the seals show theophoric names, including divine elements such as -yahu and -baʿal.^[1]

The scholarly study of Semitic seal inscriptions began in the late nineteenth century, with pioneering publications by scholars such as Charles Clermont-Ganneau, Eugène-Melchior de Vogüé, and Moritz Abraham Levy. Early corpora relied heavily on museum collections and the antiquities market, often without secure archaeological provenance.^[1]

Moritz Abraham Levy's 1869 Siegel und Gemmen was the first publication to distinguish between Aramaic, Hebrew and Phoenician on the seals.^[2] According to Levy:^[3]

The content, if one considers the lexical and grammatical features of the inscription, clarifies the language and thus the nationality only in part. A single little word such as בן (“son”), של (“of”), or אשת (“wife”) may already indicate that we are dealing with non-Aramaeans, though the assistance offered by the grammatical form of the name should also not be disregarded. If doubts still remain, then in the last instance the form of the script decides. For it is possible to specify quite definite distinguishing characteristics for Aramaic, Phoenician, and Old Hebrew writing. These scripts, having originated from a common source, over time assumed particular types through frequent use; guided by these typological forms, a more precise classification can be established. Since, however, the inscriptions on the monuments with which we are dealing here are mostly very short, many doubts still remain even when these distinguishing features are taken into account, as will become clear later. Once the decision between Aramaeans and Canaanites (as we shall provisionally call the West Semites) has been made, it is then necessary to investigate further to which of the Canaanite peoples the object in question may have belonged. In order not to lose ourselves in overly minute investigations, we consider only two peoples here: the Hebrews and the Phoenicians. Yet even here the attribution is not easy, since linguistic features are generally shared by both peoples, and the presence of symbols and pictorial representations is not such a decisive witness—as one might initially suppose—for one people or the other, as will be shown more precisely below. As a rule, the type of script must ultimately decide the matter; for younger monuments it is a better guide than for older ones.

More than a century later, the primary modern corpus, Avigad and Sass' 1997 The Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals (WSS), provided a similar explanation. The WSS explains that “nationality” is the primary principle used to classify seals, determined by a combination of script, language, names, and iconography, though palaeography "outweigh[ed] all others". Over time, some have been revised and reclassified, or remain uncertain. The WSS's authors emphasize that the classification remains provisional: "we are still far from achieving a definitive classification".^[4] According to Avigad and Sass: "There is a great similarity among the scripts and the onomasticon of the various West Semitic peoples, making it difficult to distinguish between the different groups of seals."^[1]

Forgery is a significant concern in assessing the corpus, as there has been significant demand among collectors, and the items are small and forgery is difficult to detect. Questions of authenticity have played a significant role in the study of seal inscriptions.^[5] From the nineteenth century onward, scholars debated whether certain seals represented genuine ancient objects or modern forgeries, especially when seals combined iconographic elements from different cultural traditions.^[6]

The numbers of known seals allocated by "nationality" is significantly different from the wider corpus of known Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions; Hebrew forms a large majority of the seals and bullae, whereas for wider inscriptions, Hebrew is a small minority and Phoenician and Aramaic are the majority.^[7]

Writing in 2014, Philippe Bordreuil suggested that we can be certain only of the 164 seal inscriptions which were known prior to the publication of notable monumental descriptions that could be easily copied, as well as those found subsequently in controlled archaeological excavations:^[8]

• 44 Hebrew
• 6 Phoenician
• 57 Aramaic
• 34 Ammonite
• 17 Moabite
• 6 Edomite

A number of biblical archeology publishers, such as the Archaeological Institute of America and the American Schools of Oriental Research, have banned publication of articles and papers covering unprovenanced artifacts such as seals and bullae.^[9]

The table below lists all the inscribed seals published before 1850, ordered by the date they were found.^[10]

Language	Image	Inscription	WSS No.	Century BCE	Material	Known Since	Published
Phoenician (disputed)		lʾbybʿl	1122	8th	Sardonyx scaraboid	1726	Gori, 1726[11]
Phoenician		lʾḥtmlk ʾšt yšʿ	1102	8th	Agate scaraboid	1791	Lajard 1837[12]
Phoenician		bnʾw/r	728	6th	White stone scaraboid (unknown location)	1791	Tassie and Raspe 1791 (35),[13] Gesenius LXX
Aramaic		lhwdw sprʾ	754	7th	Green jasper scarab	1791	Tassie and Raspe 1791[14] CIS II 84, BM E48508
Hebrew		lbnyhw bn šḥr	108	7th (?)	Onyx scaraboid	1812	Clarke 1813[15]
Moabite		lkmšṣdq	1036	8th	Porphyry scarab	1826	[16]
Aramaic		lmrʾ hd	809	7th	Carnelian scarab	1828	Hamaker, 1828
Hebrew		lnʾhbt bt dmlyhw	39	7th	Burnt carnelian scaraboid	1837	Gesenius LXVII
Aramaic		lsrgd	–	Late 9th	Quartz cylinder seal	1837	Gesenius 1837[17]
Aramaic		lnbrb	817	Mid 7th	Agate scaraboid	1837	CIS II 91
Aramaic		lʿzy	1116	Late 8th / early 7th	Agate scaraboid (missing)	1837	Lajard 1837,[18] CIS II 90
Phoenician		lbʿlytn ʾšʾl mʾš lmlqrt bṣr	719	5th–4th	Chalcedony scaraboid	1843	[19]
Hebrew		lʿbdyhw bn yšb	290	Late 8th / early 7th	Jasper scaraboid	1846
Aramaic		lpltḥdn	–	8th	Carnelian cylinder seal	1847	Lajard 1847,[20] CIS II 80
Aramaic		lmmh	–	8th	Unknown scaraboid (missing)	1847–49	Lajard 1847–49[21]
Aramaic		ḥnky	795	Early 6th	Chalcedony octagonal conoid	1849	Lajard 1847–49[22]
Hebrew		lntnyhw bn ʿbdyhw	279	Early 7th	Chalcedony conoid	1849
Ammonite		ltmkʾl bdmlkm	853	6th	Octagonal conoid	1849	CIS II 90, BM 102971

The Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals (WSS) states that, at the time of its publication in 1997, approximately 1,591 West Semitic inscribed seals, sealings, and related stamped objects were known when cylinder seals are included, or about 1,511 when they are excluded. Within this larger body, the WSS defines a principal working corpus of 1,189 stamp seals used for detailed study. Of these, 180 are recorded as having secure archaeological provenance, or 85-88 securely provenanced seals excluding a small number of unrepresentative large hoards.^[23]

The core WSS corpus is as follows:

The 88 core provenanced seals and bullae (excluding handles), excluding LMLK seals, the Avigad hoard and the City of David hoard is:

• WSS 2, KI 4k: Shema seal, Tel Megiddo, 1904
• WSS 8, Jaazaniah seal, Tell en-Nasbeh, 1926-35
• WSS 28, WSS 306 Hilkiah seals
• WSS 407, Eliakim, son of Hilkiah bulla, unprovenanced, 1974
• KI 2: two possible Moabite
  • WSS 1020, Girsu 1877-1900 excavations ^[24]
  • WSS 1036 unprovenanced, 1826^[16]

• King Ahaz's seal, unprovenanced, 1996
• Yehukal son of Shelemyahu seal, found 2005
• Gedaliah, son of Pashhur bullae, Jerusalem, 2005-08
• Shelomit seal, Jerusalem, 2008
• Isaiah bulla, Jerusalem, 2009
• King Hezekiah bulla, Jerusalem, 2009-10
• Kosher Bread Stamp, Horbat 'Uza, 2012
• Governor of Jerusalem Seal docket, Jerusalem, 2019
• Nathan-melech bulla, inscribed ring seal, Jerusalem, 2019
• Yeho'ezer ben Hosh'ayahu seal, Jerusalem, 2024

• LMLK seal
• Adadnadinakhe bricks

• BM 89152 / CIS II 100
• BM 89144 / CIS II 98
• Neirab cylinder: CIS II 75 / NE 445,3: Found in Babylon by John Felix Jones in the 1840s, sold to the British Museum^[25]

• Ancient Near Eastern seals and sealing practices