Isfahan

Median and Achaemenid era

Under Median rule, the commercial entrepôt began to show signs of more sedentary urbanism, growing into a regional centre that benefited from the fertile soil on the banks of the Zayandehrud River, in a region called Aspandana or Ispandana.

When Cyrus the Great unified Persian and Median lands into the Achaemenid Empire, the religiously and ethnically diverse city of Isfahan became an early example of the king's fabled religious tolerance. Having just taken Babylon, Cyrus made an edict in 538 BCE declaring that Jews in Babylon could return to Jerusalem.^[17] Later, some of the Jewish immigrants settled in Isfahan instead of returning to their homeland. The 10th century Persian historian Ibn al-Faqih wrote:

When the Jews emigrated from Jerusalem, fleeing from Nebuchadnezzar, they carried with them a sample of the water and soil of Jerusalem. They did not settle until they reached the city of Isfahan, whose soil and water was deemed to resemble that of Jerusalem. Thereupon they settled there, cultivated the soil, raised children and grandchildren, and today the name of this settlement is Yahudia.^[18]

Parthian era

The Parthians (247 BCE – 224 CE) continued the tradition of tolerance after the fall of the Achaemenids, fostering both a Hellenistic dimension within Iranian culture and the political organization introduced by Alexander the Great's invading armies. Under the Parthians, Arsacid governors administered the provinces of the nation from Isfahan, and the city's urban development accelerated to accommodate the needs of a capital city.

Sassanid era

The Sassanid Empire (224–651 CE) presided over massive changes in their realm, instituting sweeping agricultural reforms and reviving Iranian culture and the Zoroastrian religion. Both the city and region were then called by the name Aspahan or Spahan. The city was governed by a group called the Espoohrans, who descended from seven noble Iranian families. Extant foundations of some Sassanid-era bridges in Isfahan suggest that the Sasanian kings were fond of ambitious urban-planning projects.^[19]

While Isfahan's political importance declined during this period, many Sassanid princes studied statecraft in the city, and its military role increased. Its strategic location at the intersection of the ancient roads to Susa and Persepolis made it an ideal candidate to house a standing army, which would be ready to march against Constantinople at any moment. The names Aspahan and Spahan are derived from the Pahlavi or Middle Persian meaning 'the place of the army'.^[20]

Although many theories have mentioned the origins of Isfahan, little is known of it before the rule of the Sasanian dynasty. Historical records suggest that, in the late 4th and early 5th centuries, Queen Shushandukht – the Jewish wife of emperor Yazdegerd I (reigned 399–420) and mother of his successor Bahram V – settled a colony of Jewish immigrants in Yahudiyyeh (also spelled Yahudiya and Jouybareh). The settlement was 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) northwest of the Zoroastrian city of Isfahan, then known by the Achaemid and Parthian name Gabae.^[21]

Gabai was its Sasanic name, which was shortened to Gay (Arabic Jay). It was located on the northern bank of the Zayanderud River. The colony's establishment has also been attributed to Nebuchadrezzar, though that is unlikely.^[22]

After the Arab conquest of Iran, the gradual population decrease of Gay, and the simultaneous population increase of Yahudiyyeh and its suburbs, resulted in the formation of the nucleus of what was to become the city of Isfahan. The names Aspadana, Ispadana, Spahan, and Sepahan, from which the modern name Isfahan is derived, referred to the region in which the city was located.

Isfahan and Gay were reportedly both circular in design, a characteristic of Parthian and Sasanian cities.^[23] However, this reported Sasanian circular city of Isfahan has not yet been uncovered.^[24]

Muslim conquest

When the Arabs captured Isfahan in 642 CE, they made it the capital of al-Jabal province, an area that covered much of ancient Media. Isfahan grew prosperous under the Persian Buyid dynasty, which came to rule much of Iran when the temporal authority of the Abbasid leaders waned in the 10th century. The city walls of Isfahan are thought to have been constructed during the tenth century.^[25][26][27] The Turkish conqueror and founder of the Seljuq dynasty, Toghril Beg, made Isfahan the capital of his domains in the mid-11th century; the city grew in size and splendour under his grandson Malik-Shah I (r. 1073–92).^[28]

After the fall of the Seljuks (c. 1200), Isfahan temporarily declined and was eclipsed by other Iranian cities, such as Tabriz and Qazvin.

Khwarazmian and Mongol era

Timurid era

During his visit in 1327, Ibn Battuta noted that "The city of Isfahan is one of the largest and fairest of cities, but it is now in ruins for the greater part."^[29] In 1387, Isfahan surrendered to the warlord Timur. Initially treated with relative mercy, the city revolted against Timur's punitive taxes by killing the tax collectors and some of Timur's soldiers. In retribution, Timur ordered the massacre of the city residents; his soldiers reportedly killing 70,000 citizens. An eyewitness counted more than 28 towers, each constructed of about 1,500 heads.^[30]

Safavid era

Isfahan regained its importance during the Safavid era (1501–1736). The city's golden age began in 1598 when the Safavid ruler Abbas the Great (reigned 1588–1629) made it his capital and rebuilt it into one of the largest cities of the 17th-century. In 1598, he moved his capital from Qazvin to the more central Isfahan. He introduced policies increasing Iranian involvement in the Silk Road trade.^{[citation needed]} Turkish, Armenian, and Persian craftsmen were forcefully resettled in the city to ensure its prosperity.^[31][32] Their contributions to the economic vitality of the city supported the recovery of Safavid prestige after earlier losses to the Ottomans and Qizilbash tribes.^[32]

During Abbas's reign, as many as 300,000 Armenians (primarily from Jugha) were forcefully resettled; some were brought to Isfahan.^[33][34] He ordered the establishment of a new quarter for these resettled Armenians from Old Julfa, and thus the Armenian Quarter of Isfahan was named New Julfa. Today, it is one of the largest Armenian quarters in the world.^[33][34]

Abbas also oversaw a transformation of the urban pattern of Isfahan. The plans included the new, rectangular Shah Square and the linear Chahar Bagh Boulevard. Between these two focal points of Isfahan's urban revitalization was a large garden, today the gardens of Hasht Behesht. The new, geometric, planned portions of Isfahan stood out from the old city's complex street layouts, attracting foreign emissaries and wealthy residents along the Chahar Bagh.^[35] Shah Square would be adorned by 4 grand monuments on each side. To the north, a turquoise gate connected the new square to Isfahan's Grand Bazaar and old square; to the south, the Shah Mosque became the new primary place of worship for city residents.^[36]

In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of deportees and migrants from the Caucasus settled in the city following an agreement between Abbas the Great and his Georgian subject Teimuraz I of Kakheti, whereby the latter became Muslim and accepted Safavid rule. In exchange, Teimuraz was allowed to rule as the region's wāli, and his son served as the dāruḡa ('prefect') of Isfahan.^[37] Teimuraz was accompanied by a troop of soldiers,^[37] some of whom were Georgian Orthodox Christians.^[37]

The royal court in Isfahan had a great number of Georgian ḡolāms (military servants), as well as Georgian women.^[37] Although they spoke both Persian and Turkic, their mother tongue was Georgian.^[37] Now the city had enclaves of those of Georgian, Circassian, and Daghistani descent.^[37] Engelbert Kaempfer, who dwelt in Safavid Iran in 1684–85, estimated their number at 20,000.^[37][38]

During Abbas's reign, Isfahan became known in Europe, and European travellers, such as Jean Chardin, gave accounts of their visits to the city. The city was sacked by Central Asian invaders in 1722, during a marked decline in Safavid influence. Thereafter, Isfahan experienced a decline in importance, culminating in the capital being moved to Mashhad during the Afsharid era. Subsequently, the capital moved to Shiraz during the Zand era, and finally to Tehran in 1775, by Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, the founder of the Qajar dynasty.

In the early years of the 19th century, efforts were made to preserve some of Isfahan's archeologically important buildings. The work was started by Mohammad Hossein Khan, during the reign of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar.^[39]

Modern age

• 
  Street from above
• 
  Isfahan in 1924
• 
  Foolad Mobarakeh Steel Mill
• 
  Map of Isfahan by Pascal Coste

In the 20th century, Isfahan was resettled by many people from southern Iran. Many came during the migrations at the start of the century, and in the 1980s following the Iran–Iraq War. During the war, 23,000 people from Isfahan were killed, and there were 43,000 veterans.^[40]

In 1921, the first telephone office was created on Shams Abadi street.^[41]

During World War II, Polish refugees, mostly children, were admitted in Isfahan.^[42] There were 21 Polish childcare units, located in different parts of the city.^[42] Some 2,600 Poles were housed there as of February 1943.^[42] Over time, Polish children were evacuated further to Africa, India and New Zealand.^[42]

The city has had four master development programs. The first was created in 1971 by a German engineering firm that designed checkered streets.^[43][44]

Today, Isfahan produces carpets, textiles, steel, handicrafts, and traditional foods, including sweets. Isfahan is noted for its production of the Isfahan rug, a type of Persian rug typically made of merino wool and silk.

There are nuclear experimental reactors as well as uranium conversion facilities (UCF) for producing nuclear fuel in the environs of the city.^[45] There is a major oil refinery and a large air force base outside the city. HESA, Iran's most advanced aircraft manufacturing plant, is located just outside the city.^[46] Isfahan was also attracting international investment as of 2014.^[47] Isfahan hosted the International Physics Olympiad in 2007.^{[citation needed]}

In 2023, 200 loudspeakers were installed in the city by the government to play the azān.^[48] The municipality created a tourism app called Isfahanema.^[49] As of 2023, several public housing projects were being built.^[50]

In 2018, farmers in Isfahan protested for their water rights, amidst ongoing water shortages. They protested against the mismanagement and anti-American ideology of the Iranian government, chanting "Our enemy is here, they are lying that it is America", and "Front toward homeland back to enemy in Friday prayers".^[51][52]

Hydrography

An artificial network of canals, whose components are called madi, were built during the Safavid dynasty for channeling water from the Zayandeh River into different parts of the city. Designed by Sheikh Bahaï, an engineer of Shah Abbas, the network has 77 madis in the northern course of the river, and 71 in the southern course. As of 1993^[update], 91% of the centuries-old network's water was being used for agriculture purposes, 4% for industrial purposes, and 5% for domestic purposes.^[53] 70 emergency wells were dug in 2018 to avoid water shortages.^[54]

Ecological issues

Towns and villages around Isfahan have emptied out due to drought and water diversion.^[55][56] An anonymous journalist said that what is called drought is more often the mismanagement of water.^[57][58][59] The subsidence rate is dire, and the aquifer level decreases by one meter annually.^[60]

As of 2020, the city had the worst air quality among major Iranian cities.^[61][62][63]

Flora and fauna

The Damask rose cultivar Rosa 'Ispahan' is named after the city. The mole cricket is one of the major pests of plants, especially grass roots.^[64][65] By 2023, the city's green space was dying because of a water shortage; while trees need 150 liters, only 0.7 liters of gray recycled water were available.^[66] There is a program to plant Celtis australis and oak trees.^[67]

Cows endemic to Isfahan became extinct in 2020.^[68] Wagtails are often seen in farmlands and parks.^[69] Sheep and rams are symbols of Isfahan.^[70]

Climate

Situated at 1,590 metres (5,217 ft) above sea level on the eastern side of the Zagros Mountains, Isfahan has a cold desert climate (Köppen BWk). No geological obstacles exist within 90 kilometres (56 miles) north of the city, allowing cool winds to blow from this direction. Despite its altitude, Isfahan remains hot during the summer, with maxima typically around 35 °C (95 °F). With low humidity and moderate temperatures at night, the climate is quite pleasant.^[71]

During the winter, days are cool while nights can be very cold. Snow falls an average of 6.7 days each winter.^[71] Isfahan's climate is generally extremely dry. Its annual precipitation of 125 millimetres (4.9 in) is only about half that of Tehran or Mashhad and only a quarter that of more exposed Kermanshah.

The Zayande River starts in the Zagros Mountains, flowing from the west through the heart of the city, then dissipates in the Gavkhouni wetland. Planting olive trees in the city is economically viable because such trees can survive water shortages.^[72]

The highest recorded temperature was 43 °C (109 °F) on 11 July 2001. The lowest recorded temperature was −19.4 °C (−3 °F) on 16 January 1996.

In July and August 2024, Isfahan experienced a notable heatwave during which unusually high temperatures were recorded. Reported meteorological data indicated a maximum temperature of 44.6 °C on July 28, exceeding the city’s previous recorded high of 43 °C. Temperatures above 43 °C were observed for several consecutive days during this period.^[73]

Suspected nuclear weapon development

Isfahan is suspected of being the primary location for Iran's secret nuclear weapon development program.^[77][79] In September 2008, IAEA experts stated that they only had limited access in Isfahan, and that a quantity of uranium sufficient for six nuclear weapons were removed from Isfahan to undisclosed locations while still at a stage in the enrichment process which was not monitored.^[80] In June 2022, the IAEA reported that 90% of Iran's most highly enriched uranium was moved to the facilities in Isfahan, which house the equipment used to convert uranium gas into uranium metal.^[78][81]

In June 2025, the United States Air Force conducted strikes on sites that, according to the United States and Israel, were used to develop nuclear weapons.^{[citation needed]}

Roads and freeways

From 2002 to 2013, Isfahan's internal highway network underwent an expansion. Freeways connect the city to Iran's other major cities, including Tehran, 400 kilometres (250 mi) to the north, and Shiraz, 200 kilometres (120 mi) to the south. Highways also service satellite cities surrounding the metropolitan area.^{[citation needed]}

The Isfahan Eastern Bypass Freeway is under construction.

In 2021, a new AVL system was deployed in the city.^[88][89][90]

Bridges

The oldest bridge over the Zayanderud is the Shahrestan Bridge, whose foundations were built during the Sasanian Empire (3rd–7th century Sassanid era); it was repaired during the Seljuk period. Further upstream is the Khaju Bridge, which Shah Abbas II built in 1650.^{[citation needed]} It is 123 metres (404 feet) long, with 24 arches; it also serves as a sluice gate. Another bridge is the Choobi (Joui) Bridge.

Further upstream again is the Allahverdi Khan Bridge, also known as Si-o-se-pol (سی‌وسه‌پل, 'bridge of thirty-three [spans]'). It was built during the reign of Shah Abbas the Great by Sheikh Baha'i and connected Isfahan with the Armenian suburb of New Julfa. It is by far the longest bridge in Isfahan at 295 m (967.85 ft). Another notable bridge is the Marnan Bridge.

Ride sharing

Snapp! and Tapsi (ridehailing)^[91][92] are two of the carpooling apps in the city.^[93][94] The city has built 42 bicycle-sharing stations and 150 kilometres (93 mi) of paved bicycle paths.^[95][96]

As part of Iran's Islamic religious laws, women are forbidden to use the public bicycle-sharing network, as decreed by the representative of the Supreme Leader in Isfahan, Ayatollah Yousef Tabatabai Nejad, and General Attorney Ali Esfahani.^[97]

Mass transit

The Isfahan and Suburbs Bus Company operates transit buses in the city. East–West BRT Bus Rapid Transit Line buses carry up to 120,000 passengers daily.^[98]

The municipality signed a memorandum with Khatam-al Anbiya to construct a tram network in the city.^[99] The Isfahan Metro was opened on 15 October 2015. It consists of one north–south line with a length of 20.2 kilometres (12.6 mi), and two more lines are under construction, alongside three suburban rail lines.^[100]

The city is served by a railway station, with the Islamic Republic of Iran Railways running trains to Bandarabbas and Mashhad. The first high-speed railway in Iran, the Tehran-Qom-Isfahan line, is being constructed to connect Isfahan to Tehran and Qom.^[101]

Airports

Isfahan is served by Isfahan Shahid Beheshti International Airport, which in 2019 was the 7th busiest airport in Iran, and is adjacent to Khatami Air Base.^[102][83]

Aquaculture and agriculture

Isfahan city produces 1,300 tons of salmon. More than 28% of the country's ornamental fish is supplied from Isfahan province, from 780 farms, which in 2017 farmed 65.5 million fish.^[115]

Opium was produced and exported from Isfahan from 1850 until it became illegal, and was an important source of income.^[116] Isfahan has a large number of aqueducts, farmers having to divert water from the river to farms by canal.^[117] Niasarm is one of the largest canals.^[118]

From 2012 to 2013 there were large protests by farmers against the Isfahan-Yazd water tunnel. In 2019, eastern city farmers demanded water, or else they would sabotage water pipes.^[119][120] Farmers at the Fruits and Vegetables Central Market sell 10,000 tons a day.^[121]

Textiles

The industrialization of Isfahan dates from the Pahlavi period, as in all of Iran, and was marked by the growth of the textile industry; this earned the city the nickname "Manchester of Persia".^[122] By the mid-1960s, there were 25 mills employing between 18,000 and 20,000 workers, and Isfahan produced almost half of Iran's textiles. In the late 1970s the Polyacryl Iran Corporation was established in Isfahan, in partnership with the American company DuPont; in the late 1990s it produced nearly 80 percent of Iran's man-made fiber. Isfahan is also home to a significant cottage industry with many small textile shops.^[123]

High tech and heavy industries

The Isfahan Scientific and Research Town was founded in 2001, to act as a mediator between government, industry, and academia in order to establish a knowledge-based economy.^[124] Isfahan is the third-largest medicine manufacturing hub in Iran.^[125]

The Telecommunication Company of Iran and Mobile Communications of Iran provide 4G, 3G, broadband, and VDSL.^[126][127]

Isfahan has one of the largest steel-producing facilities in the region, as well as facilities for producing special alloys. The Mobarakeh Steel Company is the largest steel producer in the Middle East and Northern Africa, and it is the biggest direct reduced iron producer in the world.^[128] The Esfahan Steel Company was the first manufacturer of constructional steel products in Iran, and it remains the largest such company today.^[129]

Medical tourism

The Isfahan Healthcare city complex, built on a 300 hectares (740 acres) site near the Aqa Babaei Expressway, is intended to boost the city's medical tourism revenues.^[136]

Shopping

The city is served by Refah Chain Stores Co., Iran Hyper Star, Isfahan City Center, Shahrvand Chain Stores Inc., and Kowsar Market.^[137]

Cinemas

There are nine cinemas.^[138] Historically, cinemas old Isfahan were entertainment for the working class.

Religious people considered the cinema to be a mostly impure place and going to the cinema to was haram under Islam. During the 1979 revolution, many cinemas in Isfahan were burned down. Cinema Iran, now a ruin, was one of the oldest cinemas in the city. Great foreign filmmakers such as Agnès Varda and Pier Paolo Pasolini shot scenes in Isfahan.^{[139][140][141]}

Sports

Isfahan has three association football clubs: Sepahan S.C., Zob Ahan Isfahan F.C., and Sanaye Giti Pasand F.C.. There was another club, Polyacryl Esfahan F.C., which is now defunct.

Sepahan has won the most league football titles among Iranian clubs.^[142] The Foolad Mobarakeh Sepahan handball team plays in the Islamic Republic of Iran Handball Federation. Sepahan has a youth women's running team that became national champions in 2020.^[143]

Giti Pasand has a futsal team, Giti Pasand FSC. They won the AFC Futsal Club Championship in 2012 and were runners-up in 2013. Giti Pasand also fields a women's volleyball team, Giti Pasand Isfahan VC, that plays matches in the Iranian Women's Volleyball League.^[144] Basketball clubs include Zob Ahan Isfahan BC and Foolad Mahan Isfahan BC.^[145] There are Pahlevani zoorkhanehs in the city.^[146]

Mosques

Imamzadehs (shrine tombs)

Churches and cathedrals

Churches are mostly located in the New Julfa region. The oldest church in the city is the St. Jakob Church (1607). Other historically important churches include the St. Georg Church (17th century), St. Mary Church (1613), Bedkhem Church (1627), and Vank Cathedral (1664).^[159] Pacifique de Provins established a French mission in the city in 1627.

Synagogues

Municipal government

The mayor is Ghodratollah Noroozi.^{[citation needed]} The chairman of the city council is Alireza Nasrisfahani. There is also a leadership council within the city council.^[172][173] The representative of the Supreme Leader of Iran, as well as the representative from Isfahan in the Assembly of Experts, is Yousef Tabatabai Nejad.^[174]

The city is divided into 15 municipal districts.

Public works

City waste is processed and recycled at the Isfahan Waste Complex.^[175]

The Isfahan Water and Sewage Company [fa] is responsible for piping water, waterworks installation and repair, maintaining sewage equipment, supervising sewage collection, and treatment and disposal of sewage in the city.^[176][177]

Twenty-five fire departments provide service.^[178] Twenty private security armed service contractors existed as of 2012.^[179]

Human resources and public health

As of June 2020, 65% of the population of Isfahan province had social security insurance.^[180]

Isfahan is known as the multiple sclerosis capital of the world, due to the presence of polluting industries.^[181]

In 2015, almost 15% of the people suffered from depression, from being cut off from the Zayandeh River, due to severe drought.^[182] A male empowerment/rehab center opened in 2023, followed by a female support addiction center.^{[183][184][185][186]}

Notable schools

In total, there are more than 7,329 schools in Isfahan province.^[196]

Colleges

In 1947, the Isfahan University of Medical Sciences was established; it now has almost 9,200 students and interns.^[197] In 1973, the American School of Isfahan was built; it closed during the 1978–79 revolution. In 1974, the first technical university in Iran, the Isfahan University of Technology, was established in the city.^[198] It focuses on science, engineering, and agriculture programs.^[199] In 1977, the Isfahan University of Art was established. It was temporarily closed after the 1979 revolution, and was reopened in 1984, after the Iranian Cultural Revolution.^[200]

Aside from seminaries and religious schools, the other public, private major universities of the Isfahan metropolitan area include: the Mohajer Technical And Vocational College of Isfahan, Payame Noor University, the Islamic Azad University of Isfahan, the Islamic Azad University of Najafabad, and the Islamic Azad University of Majlesi.

As of 2007^[update], there were also more than 50 technical and vocational training centres in the province, under the administration of the Isfahan Technical and Vocational Training Organization (TVTO), providing free, informal, workforce skills training programs.^[201] As of 2020, 90% of workforce skills trainees were women.^[202]

Notable philosophers

Major philosophers include Mir Damad, known for his concepts of time and nature, as well as for founding the School of Isfahan;^[203] and Mir Fendereski, who was known for his examination of art and philosophy within society.^[204]

Cuisine

Gosh-e fil and Doogh are local snacks.^[220][221] Other traditional dishes include Khoresht mast, beryani, meat with beans, and pumpkin aush.^{[222][223][224][225][226][227][228]} The sweets gaz and poolaki originated in Isfahan.

Teahouses are supervised and were allowed to offer hookah until 2022.^[229] As of 2020^[update], there were almost 300 teahouses with permits.^[230]

Music

The Bayat-e Esfahan, one of the modes used in Iranian traditional music, derives its name from Isfahan.

On 12 and 13 January 2018, the Iranian singer Salar Aghili performed in the city without the female members of his band, due to interference by local officials at the Ministry of Islamic Culture and Guidance.^[231]

News media

The first newspaper publication in the city, Farhang, was printed for 13 years in the Qajar era.^[232] Iran's Metropolises News Agency (IMNA), formerly called the Isfahan Municipality News Agency, is based in the city.^[233] The state-controlled Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting system (IRIB) has a TV network and radio channel in the city.^[234]

Baths

Ancient baths include the Jarchi hammam, the Ali Gholi Agha hammam, and the Garmabeh-e-shaykh. The latter was built by Baha' al-din al-'Amili, and for many years was provided hot water to the public without any visible heating system, which would usually need tons of wood.^{[237][238][239][240]} The Khosro Agha hammam was demolished by unknown persons in 1992. Chardin writes that there were 273 baths in Isfahan in the Safavid era.^[241]

Bazaars

The Grand Bazaar, Isfahan, and its entrance, the Qeysarie Gate, were built in the 17th century. Opium dens and coffeehouses, clustered around the Chahar bagh and the Chehel Sotoun, served as social hubs. The best-known traditional coffeehouse is Qahva-ḵāna-ye Golestān.^{[242][241][243][244][245][246]}

Cemeteries

The Bagh-e Rezvan Cemetery is one of the largest and most advanced in the country.^[247] Other cemeteries include the New Julfa Armenian Cemetery and the Takht-e Foulad.

Gardens and parks

The Pardis Honar Park, in District 6, had cost 30 billion toman as of 2018^[update].^[248] Some other zoological gardens and parks include the Bird Garden of Isfahan, Flower Garden of Isfahan, Nazhvan Recreational Complex, Dream Land Isfahan, and the East Park of Isfahan.^[249]

Historical houses

The Alam's House in Isfahan was historically owned by Qajar aristocrats. It has a central courtyard entirely surrounded by residential parts.^[250] The Amin's House, another Qajar-era house, contains many decorations such as stucco, mirror decorations and marquetry doors^[250]

Other historical houses in Isfahan include the Malek Vineyard, Qazvinis' House, Sheykh ol-Eslam's House, and the Constitution House of Isfahan.

Mausoleums and tombs

Mausoleums and tombs in Isfahan include the Al-Rashid Mausoleum, Baba Ghassem Mausoleum, Mausoleum of Safavid Princes, Nizam al-Mulk Tomb, Saeb Mausoleum, Shahshahan mausoleum, and Soltan Bakht Agha Mausoleum.

Minarets

Menar Jonban, built in the 14th century has an iwan measuring 10 metres (33 ft) high.^[251] Other minarets include the Ali minaret, Bagh-e-Ghoushkhane minaret, Chehel Dokhtaran minaret, Dardasht minarets, Darozziafe minarets, and Sarban minaret.

Museums

Museums in Isfahan include the Museum of Contemporary Art, Isfahan City Center museum, Museum of Decorative Arts, and the Natural History Museum of Isfahan.

Palaces

Palaces located in Isfahan include Ali Qapu, Chehel Sotoun, Hasht Behesht, and Talar-e-Ashraf.

Squares and streets

Significant squares and streets in Isfahan include Chaharbagh Boulevard, Chaharbagh-e-khajou Boulevard, Meydan Kohne, Naqsh-e Jahan Square (also known as Shah Square or Imam Square), Amadegah,^[252][253] and Taleghani Street (also known as Shah Street).^[254]

Other sites

Other cultural sites include the Atashgah of Isfahan, a Zoroastrian fire temple; Isfahan Observatory; and Asarkhane Shahi.

Ancient pigeon towers are found across the city, with 22 towers in Gavart alone.^{[255][256][257][258][259]}

Twin towns – sister cities

Isfahan is twinned with:^[269][270]

1. Xi'an, Shaanxi, China (1989)
2. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (1997)
3. Florence, Italy (1998)
4. Iași, Romania (1999)
5. Barcelona, Spain
6. Yerevan, Armenia (2000)
7. Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany (2000)
8. Kuwait City, Kuwait (2000)
9. Havana, Cuba (2001)
10. Lahore, Pakistan (2004)
11. Saint Petersburg, Russia (2004)
12. Dakar, Senegal (2009)
13. Baalbek, Lebanon (2010)
14. Samarkand, Uzbekistan since July 2021
15. Porto, Portugal since July 2021
16. Kazan, Russia 2025 ^[271]
17. Gyeongju, South Korea (2013)^[272]

Cooperation agreements

Isfahan cooperates with:

• Barcelona, Spain (2000)

In addition, the New Julfa quarter of Isfahan has friendly relations with:^[273]

• Issy-les-Moulineaux, France (2018)