Proto-Kabardian language

The consonant system is reconstructed with a four-way phonation contrast in stops and affricates, and a two-way contrast in fricatives.

Proto-Kabardian possessed a distinct series of stops and affricates. This inventory included palatalized velars and postalveolar affricates.

Postalveolar affricates:

• d͡ʒ ⟨дж⟩
• t͡ʃ ⟨ч⟩
• t͡ʃʼ ⟨чӏ⟩

Palatalized velars:

• ɡʲ ⟨гь⟩
• kʲ ⟨кь⟩
• kʲʼ ⟨кӏь⟩

The evolution into Modern Standard Kabardian occurred in two distinct phases. The Besleney dialect was not affected by either Phase 1 or Phase 2, preserving the Proto-Kabardian forms. Some Kabardian dialects (like Uzunyayla) were affected by Phase 1 but not Phase 2. Standard Kabardian underwent both shifts.

In Phase 1, the original Proto-Kabardian affricate postalveolar consonants underwent spirantization, becoming fricatives in Standard Kabardian. Besleney retained the affricates.

The shifts were:

• d͡ʒ ⟨дж⟩ → ʒ ⟨ж⟩
• t͡ʃ ⟨ч⟩ → ʃ ⟨ш⟩
• t͡ʃʼ ⟨чӏ⟩ → ɕʼ ⟨щӏ⟩

The following table demonstrates specific examples of this spirantization. Note that Besleney retains the affricates found in Proto-Kabardian.

Later on, after the original affricates had become fricatives in Phase 1, a gap was left in the postalveolar position. In the majority of Kabardian dialects (including Standard Kabardian), the historical velar consonants shifted forward to fill this gap. Besleney and some Kabardian dialects (like Uzunyayla) did not undergo this shift and retained the velars.

The shifts were:

• ɡʲ ⟨гь⟩ → d͡ʒ ⟨дж⟩
• kʲ ⟨кь⟩ → t͡ʃ ⟨ч⟩
• kʲʼ ⟨кӏь⟩ → t͡ʃʼ ⟨чӏ⟩

The following tables demonstrate how Besleney retains the velars, while Standard Kabardian shifts them to affricates.

1. Proto-Kabardian/Besleney ɡʲ → Standard Kabardian d͡ʒ

2. Proto-Kabardian/Besleney kʲ → Standard Kabardian t͡ʃ

3. Proto-Kabardian/Besleney kʲʼ → Standard Kabardian t͡ʃʼ

The following table shows how words like "new" (affected by Phase 1) and "tail" (affected by Phase 2) are distinct in dialects. In Besleney (No phases), they remain t͡ʃʼ and kʲʼ. In Standard Kabardian (Both phases), they became ɕʼ and t͡ʃʼ.

In Circassian, there are two ways to mark the third person plural on the verb, depending on the role of the noun (Ergative vs. Absolutive):

• Absolutive Plural: Indicated by the suffix
  x ⟨-х⟩. This marks the plural subject of intransitive verbs or the plural object of transitive verbs.
• Ergative Plural: Indicated by the prefix ja- ⟨я-⟩ (or a- in some contexts). This marks the plural subject of transitive verbs.

• абы ар илъэгъуащ "(s)he saw it" (Singular Subject, Singular Object)
• абы ахэр илъэгъуахэщ "(s)he saw them" (Singular Subject, Plural Object - marked by suffix -хэ)
• абыхэм ар ялъэгъуащ "they saw it" (Plural Subject - marked by prefix я-, Singular Object)
• абыхэм ахэр ялъэгъуахэщ "they saw them" (Plural Subject and Plural Object)

In Modern Standard Kabardian, the Absolutive third-person plural suffix (

x / ⟨-х⟩) has disappeared. As a result, the verb form for a plural absolutive often resembles the singular form, even though the pronoun remains plural (ахэр).

In Modern Kabardian, the suffix -r ⟨-р⟩, which typically marks the dynamic present tense in other Circassian dialects, has disappeared in specific contexts:

1. **Negative Present Tense:** The suffix is dropped before the negative marker -q'əm.
2. **Imperfect Tense:** The suffix is dropped before the past tense marker -t.

• Урыс Хь. Ш. (2000). Адыгэбзэм и тхыдэ: ІыхьитIу зэхэлъу. Налшык: Эльбрус. ISBN 5-7680-1439-X
• Nikolayev, Sergei L.; Starostin, Sergei A. (1994). A North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary (Edited by S. A. Starostin). Moscow: Asterisk Publishers. Preface.
• Chirikba, Viacheslav A. (1996). Common West Caucasian: The Reconstruction of its Phonological System and Parts of its Lexicon and Morphology. Leiden, The Netherlands: Research School CNWS, School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies (CNWS Publications, Vol. 48). ISBN 90-73782-73-2.
• Kuipers, Aert Hendrik (1975). A Dictionary of Proto-Circassian Roots (PdR Press Publications on North Caucasian Languages 1). Lisse, Netherlands: The Peter de Ridder Press. PDF.