Uttarakhand

Prehistory and antiquity

The history of the region now comprising Uttarakhand extends to prehistoric times, archaeological discoveries, including stone tools, rock shelters, paintings and megalithic remains, attest to human presence in the Himalayan foothills and valleys long before the emergence of historically documented polities.^[25] The rock shelters at Lakhudiyar near Almora, which contain prehistoric paintings, are among the best-known archaeological sites in Kumaon.^[26] Taken together, the archaeological record indicates that the region's mountainous terrain supported human settlement and movement from an early period and formed part of wider networks linking the Himalayan valleys, foothills and trans-Himalayan routes.^[25][27][28]

By the early historic period, the region had become connected to the political and cultural networks of northern India.^[29] Sanskrit traditions associate parts of the central Himalaya with places such as Uttarakuru, but these references do not establish the existence of a historically identifiable Uttarakuru state in present-day Uttarakhand.^[30] More direct evidence comes from archaeological and epigraphic remains.^[31] The Ashokan rock edict at Kalsi, in present-day Dehradun district, records the incorporation of the western Himalayan foothills into the Mauryan political sphere and provides evidence for the spread of Buddhism in the region.^[32] From around the second century BCE, the Kunindas, an early historic polity associated with the western Himalayas, exercised authority over parts of the area. Their coinage and associated archaeological evidence indicate organized political activity and participation in trade networks extending through the Himalayan passes.^[33] The historical record becomes comparatively fragmentary in the centuries following the decline of the early historic polities and preceding the formation of the better-documented medieval kingdoms. During this period, the region was inhabited and influenced by several Himalayan communities and ruling groups, including the Khasas.^[34] Literary sources, inscriptions and archaeological remains provide evidence of continuing political and cultural activity, but they do not permit a continuous reconstruction of political authority across the region. Instead, the available evidence suggests a changing landscape of local centres and communities, connected at different times to wider Himalayan and north Indian political, economic and cultural networks.

Medieval kingdoms

Katarmal Sun Temple constructed by the Katyuri Kings in the 9th century CE

Jageshwar Temples Complex are a group of over 100 Hindu temples dated between 7th and 12th century.

A major phase in the political history of the central Himalaya began with the rise of the Katyuris. Between approximately the seventh and eleventh centuries, they established a kingdom centred on the Katyur valley in present-day Kumaon, whose influence at its height extended across substantial parts of the central Himalaya.^[35] Baijnath and surrounding settlements emerged as important political and religious centres, while surviving monuments at Baijnath and the Jageshwar temple complex attest to the development of regional traditions of temple architecture and religious patronage during the early medieval period. The decline of Katyuri authority was followed by political fragmentation and the emergence of several local principalities.^[35] In Kumaon, the Chand dynasty gradually established itself as the dominant power.^[36] The Chands initially centred their rule at Champawat and later made Almora their principal seat, governing Kumaon for several centuries. Their rule was marked by the consolidation of administrative institutions, continued temple patronage and the expansion of regional trade networks. Successive Chand rulers also contributed to the construction and modification of religious monuments, including the Jageshwar complex, reinforcing the importance of established pilgrimage centres within the political and cultural landscape of Kumaon.^[36]

In western Uttarakhand, political consolidation followed a different course. Garhwal was divided among numerous local chiefs and fortified settlements, traditionally known as garhs.^[37] The Parmar (Paramara/Panwar) dynasty of Garhwal gradually brought many of these territories under a common authority and established the Garhwal Kingdom.^[a] Srinagar emerged as its principal capital in the later medieval period. Garhwal and Kumaon consequently developed as separate political entities, although their geographical proximity sustained substantial cultural, religious and economic interaction. The medieval period also saw the expansion of pilgrimage networks centred on major Himalayan shrines, including Badrinath, Kedarnath and Jageshwar. These routes connected settlements in the mountains with pilgrimage and trading centres in the plains and across the Himalayan passes. The movement of pilgrims, merchants, religious specialists and migrants fostered sustained cultural and economic exchange across the region, while reinforcing the importance of Himalayan religious centres within wider north Indian networks.

Gorkha conquest and British rule

Rope bridge across Alaknanda River at Srinagar, 1784–94 – the capital of the Garhwal Kingdom

Fort of Champawat, 1815 – the first capital of the Chand kings of Kumaon Kingdom

The political balance of the central Himalaya changed markedly in the late eighteenth century with the expansion of the Gorkha kingdom of Nepal. Gorkha forces conquered Kumaon in 1790–91 and subsequently advanced into Garhwal. The Garhwal Kingdom was defeated in 1803, and most of the region was brought under Gorkha control. Gorkha rule lasted for roughly a decade and a half and introduced changes to systems of taxation, land administration and political authority. Gorkha expansion brought the Himalayan states into direct conflict with the British East India Company. The resulting Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814–16 ended with the Treaty of Sugauli, under which Kumaon and much of Garhwal came under British control. The British incorporated these territories into their administrative system in northern India, while a reduced Garhwal Kingdom was restored in 1815 under Sudarshan Shah as the princely state of Tehri Garhwal.^[38] For the remainder of the colonial period, therefore, the territory of present-day Uttarakhand was divided between British-administered districts and the princely state of Tehri Garhwal.^[39]

Under British rule, Kumaon and British Garhwal were administered separately from Tehri Garhwal.^[40] Colonial policies concerning land revenue, forests, labour and natural resources altered established patterns of life in the mountain communities. Restrictions on customary access to forests and the commercialization of forest resources generated local opposition, while compulsory labour practices prompted movements such as the Coolie Begar agitation.^[41] Such conflicts contributed to the emergence of political mobilization in the Himalayan districts and later formed part of the region's wider political consciousness.^[42] Tehri Garhwal retained its princely status until the end of British rule. During the twentieth century, opposition to the Tehri monarchy grew alongside the wider Indian independence movement and demands for representative government. Following Indian independence, Tehri Garhwal acceded to India and was subsequently incorporated into the United Provinces, bringing the former princely state into the same administrative framework as the neighbouring territories.

Post-independence period and popular movements

After Indian independence in 1947, the territories corresponding to present-day Uttarakhand were incorporated into the state of Uttar Pradesh. The former British-administered districts of Kumaon and Garhwal were retained within the state's administrative structure, while the former princely state of Tehri Garhwal was also integrated into Uttar Pradesh.^[43] The region's mountainous terrain, limited transport and communications infrastructure, predominantly rural economy and dependence on agriculture and forests presented persistent challenges to economic development and administration. These conditions contributed to growing concerns over the allocation of resources, employment opportunities and the management of the region's natural resources.^[44]

The post-independence period saw the emergence of social movements rooted in the region's environmental and economic concerns.^[45][46] The Chipko movement, which developed in the 1970s in the Himalayan districts, grew out of conflicts over commercial logging, access to forest resources and local livelihoods.^[47] Villagers, including large numbers of women, used non-violent direct action to oppose the felling of trees.^[48] Chandi Prasad Bhatt and Sunderlal Bahuguna became prominent figures associated with different strands of the movement, while women such as Gaura Devi played important roles in local mobilization.^[49] Although Chipko is widely remembered as an environmental movement, questions of livelihood, access to natural resources and local economic rights were central to its development. The movement subsequently acquired national and international significance in debates about forests, development and environmental politics.^[50]

Uttarakhand movement and statehood

Although demands for special rights for the region can be traced to 1815, following the East India Company’s annexation of Kumaon, the movement gained greater prominence in 1938, when Jawaharlal Nehru expressed support for the cause at a special session of the Indian National Congress.^[51] The movement was rooted in longstanding regional grievances and the perception that the hill districts had distinct geographical, economic and administrative needs from the plains of Uttar Pradesh. Although Garhwal and Kumaon had historically been separate political entities, their shared geography, cultural connections, economic interests and experience within Uttar Pradesh increasingly provided the basis for a common regional political identity.^[52] Despite having a population comparable to that of neighbouring Himachal Pradesh, the hill region of Uttarakhand was represented by 22 seats in the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly, compared with 68 seats in the Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly. The Ramashankar Kaushik Committee, constituted by the Uttar Pradesh government in 1994 to examine the demand for a separate hill state, noted concerns regarding the region’s political representation and recommended the creation of a separate state.^[51]

The Uttarakhand Kranti Dal and other organizations campaigned for a separate hill state, and the movement gained considerable momentum during the late 1980s and early 1990s.^[53] The demand became a mass movement in 1994.^[54] Demonstrations and protests were held across the hill districts, while the movement also received support from a wide range of political and social groups.^[55] A particularly significant and controversial episode occurred at Rampur Tiraha near Muzaffarnagar on 2 October 1994, when police opened fire on protesters travelling towards Delhi to participate in the statehood movement.^[56] The incident, in which several people were killed and others were injured, became a major turning point in the movement and intensified public support for separate statehood.^[53]

The political process towards statehood subsequently advanced at the national level. The Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council passed the Uttar Pradesh Reorganisation Bill in 1998.^[57] Parliament subsequently enacted the Uttar Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2000, providing for the creation of a new state from thirteen districts of Uttar Pradesh.^[58] The new state, initially named Uttaranchal, came into existence on 9 November 2000 as the 27th state of the Republic of India.^[59] The territory consisted of the districts of Pauri Garhwal, Tehri Garhwal, Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Dehradun, Nainital, Almora, Pithoragarh, Bageshwar, Champawat, Rudraprayag, Haridwar and Udham Singh Nagar. The name of the state was changed from Uttaranchal to Uttarakhand in 2006.^[60]

Climate

Uttarakhand's climate varies considerably with elevation and geography, ranging from subtropical conditions in the southern lowlands to alpine conditions in the higher Himalayan regions.^[80] The winter season lasts from October to February, with peak winter and heavy snowfall occurring between December and February.^[81] Temperatures are generally lower in the high-altitude mountain regions, where they frequently fall below freezing and precipitation may occur as snow.^[82] Lower elevations experience milder winter conditions, with temperatures generally ranging from about 5 °C (41 °F) to 20 °C (68 °F).^[80]

The pre-monsoon or hot-weather season extends from March to May, with temperatures rising through the spring and reaching their highest levels in May and early June.^[83] Mean maximum temperatures in the southern parts and valleys of the state generally reach about 34–38 °C (93–100 °F), while mean minimum temperatures are around 20–24 °C (68–75 °F). Temperatures can be higher during periods of extreme heat, particularly in the lower elevations.^[84]

The southwest monsoon generally occurs from June to September, followed by the post-monsoon season during October and November.^[85] Most of Uttarakhand's annual precipitation occurs during the southwest monsoon, when weather systems associated with the Bay of Bengal bring moisture to the region.^[86] The amount and distribution of rainfall vary considerably across the state because of its rugged terrain and differences in elevation.^[87] Precipitation occurs as rain at lower elevations and increasingly as snow at higher elevations.^[88] Additionally, the state's rugged terrain influences local wind patterns and produces substantial climatic variation over relatively short distances.^[89] Winds are generally light in the valleys but become stronger with increasing elevation.^[87]

Flora and fauna

State symbols of Uttarakhand^[90]

State animal	Alpine musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster)
State bird	Himalayan monal (Lophophorus impejanus)
State tree	Burans (Rhododendron arboreum)
State flower	Brahma Kamal (Saussurea obvallata)
State fruit	Bayberry (Myrica esculenta)
State sport	Football

Uttarakhand's vegetation varies considerably with altitude and climate.^[76] Subtropical forests occur in the lower hills and foothills, while temperate broadleaf forests, coniferous forests, subalpine vegetation and alpine meadows occur at higher elevations.^[91] Evergreen oaks (Quercus spp), rhododendrons and conifers are characteristic of the higher hills, while sal (Shorea robusta) is prominent in the lower elevations.^[92][93] Other trees found in the state include Sour cherry (Prunus cerasoides), Red silk-cotton tree (Bombax ceiba), Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo), Kumkum tree (Mallotus philippensis), Black cutch (Acacia catechu), Bidi leaf (Bauhinia racemosa), Orchid (Bauhinia variegata) and Kala siris (Albizia chinensis).^[94] The state’s diverse habitats support a rich diversity of plant species, many of which are of medicinal and ecological importance and have consequently attracted significant scientific and conservation interest. The Herbal Research and Development Institute (HRDI), a state government institution, conducts research on medicinal plants and supports their conservation and cultivation.^[95]

Uttarakhand contains several protected areas that conserve its diverse flora and fauna. These include Jim Corbett National Park in Nainital and Pauri Garhwal districts; Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers national parks in Chamoli district; Rajaji National Park in Haridwar, Dehradun and Pauri Garhwal districts; and Govind Pashu Vihar and Gangotri national parks in Uttarkashi district. Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers national parks form the Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks UNESCO World Heritage Site. Valley of Flowers is particularly notable for its alpine flora, with hundreds of species of higher plants, including numerous flowering plants. Several plants found there are internationally threatened, while others have a restricted distribution. The valley and other parts of the state also contain medicinal plants such as Himalayan Marsh Orchid (Dactylorhiza hatagirea), Kutki (Picrorhiza kurroa), Wolfsbane (Aconitum violaceum), Solomon's seal (Polygonatum multiflorum), Yellow Himalayan Fritillary (Fritillaria roylei) and Indian may apple (Podophyllum hexandrum).^[96][97]

The forests and grasslands of Uttarakhand support a wide range of mammals. Tigers and leopards occur mainly in forested areas, particularly in the foothills and lowlands, while smaller felids include the jungle cat, fishing cat and leopard cat.^[98] Deer include chital, sambar, hog deer and barking deer. Other mammals include sloth bears, Himalayan black bears, Himalayan brown bears, bharal, Indian pangolins, yellow-throated martens, mongooses, otters, langurs, red panda and rhesus macaques.^[99] Asian elephants occur in the foothills and are particularly associated with the forested corridors of the Terai and Shivalik regions.^[100][101] The state's rivers and wetlands support a variety of reptiles, including mugger crocodiles and gharials.^[102][103] Several species of freshwater turtles and terrapins also occur in its river systems, including the Indian roofed turtle, Brahminy river turtle and Ganges softshell turtle.^[104] Conservation and captive-breeding programmes have contributed to the recovery of some crocodilian populations, including the reintroduction of captive-bred animals into suitable river habitats.^[105] Uttarakhand also supports a diverse bird and butterfly fauna.^[106] Birds recorded in the state include the jungle babbler, tawny-bellied babbler, great slaty woodpecker, red-breasted parakeet, orange-breasted green pigeon and chestnut-winged cuckoo.^[107][108] The region has also recorded rare and migratory species, including the bean goose.^[109] The Himalayan quail, a critically endangered species endemic to the western Himalayas, has not been recorded with certainty since the nineteenth century.^[110][111] Butterflies found in Uttarakhand include the red helen, great eggfly, common tiger and pale wanderer.^[112]

Natural hazards

The state's location in the seismically active Himalayan belt, combined with steep slopes, fragile geology, and heavy monsoon rainfall, make parts of Uttarakhand vulnerable to landslides, flash floods and soil erosion, particularly during the monsoon season.^[79] The entire state — including its plains and mountainous regions — falls under seismic Zone VI, the highest category for earthquake vulnerability.^[113] Landslides are common during the monsoon season, particularly in the higher reaches of Garhwal and Kumaon, where road networks are frequently disrupted and settlements are at risk.

The state has experienced major flood and land-subsidence events in recent decades. In June 2013, several days of extremely heavy rain caused devastating floods in the region, resulting in more than 5,000 people missing and presumed dead, described in the Indian media as a "Himalayan Tsunami."^[114][115] In February 2021, floods emerging from the Nanda Devi glacier devastated locations along the Rishi Ganga, Dhauli Ganga, and Alaknanda rivers, causing widespread damage to Raini village, river dams, and hydropower infrastructure.^[116][117] The disaster resulted in at least 80 confirmed deaths, with more than 120 people reported missing.^[118] In January 2024, the town of Joshimath in Chamoli district experienced land subsidence, with cracks appearing in over 800 houses and widespread damage to roads and infrastructure.^[119] The subsidence, attributed to a combination of geological instability, construction activity, and water seepage from hydropower tunnels, led to the evacuation of more than 500 families.^[120] In response, the state government declared Joshimath a subsidence zone, halted all construction activities.^[121]

Forest fires are another recurrent hazard, with significant episodes recorded in 2016, 2020, and 2021, particularly in the pine forests of the lower and middle Himalayas.^[122] The fire season typically occurs during the dry summer months, and rising temperatures combined with accumulating forest litter.^[123] Forest fires in Uttarakhand have significant ecological consequences. While some fires are natural and can regenerate certain species, the increasing frequency and intensity of fires—particularly in chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) forests—disrupt forest regeneration, alter species composition, and degrade wildlife habitat. Ground-dwelling fauna, including small mammals, reptiles, and insects, are directly affected by fire events, while the loss of understory vegetation reduces food and shelter for larger herbivores and their predators.^[124] Repeated fires also contribute to soil erosion, loss of soil moisture, and a decline in native plant diversity, as fire-resistant species such as chir pine gradually replace broadleaf species like oak (Quercus), which are less fire-tolerant but ecologically more valuable for retaining soil moisture and supporting biodiversity.

Population

Uttarakhand's population is concentrated in its two principal geocultural regions, Garhwal and Kumaon. The state's inhabitants are commonly identified as Uttarakhandis, with Garhwali and Kumaoni referring more specifically to the respective regional and linguistic communities.^[127]

According to the 2011 Census of India, Uttarakhand had a population of 10,086,292, comprising 5,137,773 males and 4,948,519 females. About 69.77 per cent of the population lived in rural areas.^[128] The state accounted for approximately 0.83 per cent of India's population while occupying about 1.63 per cent of its land area. It ranked twentieth among India's states by population. The population was projected to reach 11.6 million in 2023 and 13.3 million by 2036.^[129] Uttarakhand's population growth has been accompanied by declining fertility. According to the National Family Health Survey (2019–21), the state's total fertility rate was 1.9 children per woman, below the replacement level of 2.1 and slightly below the national average of 2.0. The state recorded a crude birth rate of 18.6 and a crude death rate of 6.6.^[130] Its infant mortality rate was 43 per 1,000 live births, while the maternal mortality ratio was 188 per 100,000 live births.^[131] According to the 2011 census, Uttarakhand had 989 females for every 1,000 males, compared with 943 nationally. The literacy rate was 78.82 per cent, which is higher than the national average of 73 per cent.^[132] The state's population density was 189 people per km², while its population increased by 18.81% between 2001 and 2011.^[133]

Social groups

Uttarakhand's population comprises Garhwali and Kumaoni communities alongside various caste and tribal groups.^[134] Historically, Rajput and Brahmin communities have occupied prominent positions in the state's social structure.^[135] Estimates of their population shares vary by source; a 2007 study by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies estimated that Brahmins constituted about one-fifth of Uttarakhand's population and reported that the state had the highest proportion of Brahmins among Indian states at the time.^[136] Rajputs have also constituted a substantial proportion of the population, with one estimate placing their share at about 35 per cent.^[137]

Other Backward Classes (OBCs) account for an estimated 18.3 per cent of the population, with Gurjars among the state's larger OBC communities.^[137] Scheduled Castes (SCs) accounted for 18.76 per cent of the population, while Scheduled Tribes (STs) accounted for 2.89 per cent.^[138] Recognised Scheduled Tribes include the Jaunsaris, Bhotiyas, Tharus, Buksas, Rajis, Jads and Banrawats.^[139] The state is also home to communities that are not included among the state's constitutionally recognised Scheduled Tribes, including the Shaukas and Van Gujjars. The Van Gujjars are primarily associated with the Shiwalik foothills and have traditionally followed a pastoral way of life.^[140][141]

Languages

Human Development & healthcare

According to subnational Human Development Index (HDI) estimates, Uttarakhand recorded an HDI of 0.714 in 2022, compared with 0.676 for India as a whole, placing the state above the national average.^[149] Life expectancy at birth in the state was estimated at approximately 69.5 years in 2022.^[150] The National Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) 2023 reported that 9.67 per cent of Uttarakhand's population was multidimensionally poor during 2019–21, a decline from 17.67% in 2015–16.^[151] The improvement was observed across all three dimensions measured by the MPI – health, education, and living standards – reflecting broad-based progress in human development indicators.^[152] Despite these indicators, the state faces challenges in human development. The hill districts experience out-migration due to limited economic opportunities, which affects the demographic profile and places strain on social infrastructure in rural areas. Additionally, the 2021–22 labour force participation rate (LFPR) for women in Uttarakhand was only 22.4 per cent, compared to 68.8 per cent for men, indicating a significant gender gap in workforce participation.^[153]

Healthcare infrastructure in the state includes 1,878 government health institutions (as of 2022), comprising 41 district hospitals, 89 community health centres, 259 primary health centres, and 1,489 sub-centres.^[154][155] The state has 10 medical colleges and 3,285 hospital beds in government facilities, translating to approximately 2.6 beds per 1,000 population.^[156] Immunisation coverage for children aged 12–23 months stood at 87.3 per cent (NFHS-5, 2019–21), marginally above the national average of 76.4 per cent.^[157][158]

The state faces challenges in healthcare delivery, particularly in rural and hill areas. According to the Rural Health Statistics 2021–2022, Uttarakhand was among the states with the most pronounced shortages of auxiliary nurse midwives at sub-centres.^[159] A 2016 report noted that 47 per cent of health worker posts were vacant, with 97 PHCs operating without doctors and 148 specialist posts vacant at CHCs.^[160] The average rural population served per PHC in Uttarakhand was 28,646 persons in 2018–2019, higher than the national norm of 20,000 for hill areas, indicating a shortfall in infrastructure relative to population needs.^[161]

Religion

According to the 2011 Census of India, more than four-fifths (82.97 per cent) of Uttarakhand's population adheres to Hinduism, making it the majority religion. Muslims constitute the largest religious minority, comprising 13.95 per cent of the population, while Sikhs (2.34 per cent), Christians (0.37 per cent), Buddhists (0.15 per cent), Jains (0.09 per cent), and other religions or not stated (0.13 per cent) account for smaller proportions.

Between the 2001 and 2011 censuses, the Hindu population declined marginally from 84.96 per cent to 82.97 per cent, while the Muslim population increased from 11.92 per cent to 13.95 per cent, reflecting a 2.02 percentage point rise over the decade.^[163] Uttarakhand recorded the second-highest growth rate of Muslim population among Indian states during this period, after Assam.^[164]

Religious composition varies geographically, with Hinduism predominant across the hill regions, while Muslims and Sikhs have a more substantial presence in the plains. Christian, Buddhist and Jain communities are present in several parts of the state, particularly in urban areas. Tibetan Buddhism is practised among Tibetan refugee communities in settlements such as the Tibetan Colony in Dehradun and the Tibetan Monastery in Bylakuppe, as well as among some Himalayan populations in districts bordering Tibet.^[165] Indigenous religious traditions continue to influence the cultural practices of some tribal communities, including the Tharu, Bhotia, and Jaunsari, sometimes alongside Hinduism or Buddhism.

Architecture and crafts

The architecture of Uttarakhand reflects the state's Himalayan environment and the traditions of its Garhwali and Kumaoni communities.^[251] Traditional houses in the hill regions were generally constructed from locally available stone, timber, and slate, with designs adapted to steep terrain and climatic conditions.^[252] In parts of Kumaon, traditional houses are characterised by stone masonry, carved wooden doors and windows, and slate roofs. The koti banal style of wooden architecture, found mainly in parts of Garhwal, is notable for its timber-frame construction and resistance to earthquakes. Deodar (Cedrus deodara) wood valued for its durability, distinctive aroma, and anti-termite properties.^[252]

Religious architecture forms an important part of the state's built heritage. Temples in the Himalayan districts commonly incorporate stone and timber construction, while the temples of the Char Dham—Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri—are among the best-known religious structures in the region. Jageshwar in Almora district is a temple complex dating largely from the early medieval period, while the group of temples at Baijnath represents example of medieval North Indian Nagara-style architecture^[253] Garwhali Miniature painting is a form of miniature painting that flourished in the region between the 17th and 19th century.^[254] Mola Ram is credited as a pioneer of the Garhwali Branch of the wider Pahari School. Kumaoni art often is geometrical in nature, while Garhwali art is known for its closeness to nature.^[255]

The Likhai tradition is particularly prominent in the Kumaon region, where architectural elements such as doors (kholi), windows (tyapaari), pillars, and railings are adorned with detailed carvings.^[256] The main door of a traditional house often features an image of Lord Ganesha at its centre, framed by floral patterns. The craft also extends to household items such as vessels, lamps, and spoons. Aipan, a GI certified traditional decorative art of Kumaon, consists of geometric and ritual designs traditionally drawn with rice paste on a red ochre background and is associated with religious and domestic ceremonies.^[257]

Arts and literature

Uttarakhand has distinct literary traditions in both Garhwali and Kumaoni, alongside Hindi and other languages used in the state.^[258] Oral traditions, devotional poetry, folk narratives, and songs have historically played an significant role in transmitting local history, beliefs, and social customs.^[258] The state government confers the Uttarakhand Sahitya Bhushan Samman, the highest literary honour of the state, to recognise outstanding contributions to literature.^[259] Many of its traditional tales originated in the form of lyrical ballads and chanted by itinerant singers and are now considered classics of Hindi literature.^[260]

Sumitranandan Pant, born in Kausani in Almora district, was one of the principal figures of the Chhayavad movement in modern Hindi poetry.^[261] His poetry is noted for its engagement with nature, and the Himalayan landscape influenced much of his literary work. Gaura Pant 'Shivani', whose family was associated with Kumaon, wrote extensively in Hindi and became known for novels and stories drawing on social and cultural life.^[262] Contemporary literature in Garhwali and Kumaoni includes poetry, fiction, journalism, and efforts to preserve and promote the languages as part of the state's cultural heritage. Folk theatre, storytelling, painting, and ritual art also form part of the wider artistic traditions of Uttarakhand.

Cuisine

The cuisine of Uttarakhand is shaped by the region's mountainous terrain, agricultural practices, and locally available crops.^[263] Traditional food relies extensively on cereals, pulses, millets, leafy vegetables, and locally grown herbs.^[264] In the hill regions, where agricultural land is limited, foods based on hardy crops such as mandua (finger millet), jhangora (barnyard millet), and locally cultivated pulses have traditionally been important.^[265] Millets form the backbone of the traditional hill diet.^[266]

Among the signature dishes of Uttarakhand are Kafuli, a preparation of leafy greens;^[267] chainsoo, made from ground black gram or other pulses;^[268] 'bhatt ki churkani, prepared from black soybean;^[269] aloo ke gutke, spiced potatoes commonly served as a side dish;^[270] and jholi, a yoghurt-based preparation. Bal Mithai, a popular sweet made from roasted khoya and coated with sugar balls.^[271] Non-vegetarian food forms an important part of the state cuisine.^[272] Mutton and chicken are commonly consumed, while traditional preparations include Bhutwa, a dish made from goat intestines and other offal.^[273]

Dances and music

The folk music and dance traditions of Uttarakhand are closely associated with the cultural traditions of its Garhwal and Kumaon regions.^[274] Traditional performances are commonly linked to religious ceremonies, seasonal celebrations, community gatherings, and local festivals. Folk songs have historically served as a means of preserving oral traditions and expressing themes related to migration, agriculture, devotion, nature, and everyday life. Songs are played on instruments including Dhol, Damau, Turri, Ransingha, Dholki, Daur, Thali, Bhankora, Mandan and Mashakbaja.^[275]

Among the best-known folk dances are Chholiya, traditionally performed in the Kumaon region during weddings and other festive occasions.^[276] Langvir Nritya, a traditional performance associated with Garhwal in which performers balance on a tall pole while performing acrobatic movements. Barada Nati, a community dance from the Jaunsar region; Jhora, a group dance, is performed during social and festive gatherings, while Chanchari and Pandav Nritya are associated with the folk traditions of the state.^[277] Bedu Pako Baro Masa is a traditional Garhwali folk song that celebrates the region's culture and way of life and is widely regarded as an emblematic song of Uttarakhand.^[278]

Music is also used as a medium through which the gods are invoked. Jagar is a form of spirit worship in which the singer, or Jagariya, sings a ballad of the gods, the ballads evoke local deities with allusions to great epics, like Mahabharat and Ramayana, that describe the adventures and exploits of the god being invoked.^[279][280]

Fairs and festivals

Uttarakhand's calendar is marked by numerous fairs and festivals, many of which are tied to religious traditions, agricultural cycles, and seasonal changes.^[281] Hindu festivals such as Diwali, Holi, Dussehra, Navratri, Makar Sankranti, and Shivratri are widely observed, while local fairs and festivals often have distinctive traditions associated with particular regions and temples. The state also hosts numerous religious fairs associated with temples and pilgrimage centres. The Kumbh Mela at Haridwar, held periodically, is one of India's largest religious gatherings.^[282] Other important fairs include the Purnagiri Mela in Champawat, the Jageshwar Monsoon Festival and the Nanda Devi Mela in Almora.^[283] Other fairs and cultural events held across Uttarakhand include the Kanwar Yatra, Kandali Festival, Kauthig, Nauchandi Mela, Giddi Mela, and Uttarayani Mela.^[284]

The Nanda Devi Raj Jat is one of the most significant traditional religious festivals of Uttarakhand. Held at intervals of approximately twelve years, the pilgrimage travels through parts of the Garhwal Himalayas and is associated with the worship of the goddess Nanda Devi. The route traditionally extends from Nauti in Chamoli district towards the high-altitude shrine of Homkund.^[285] Other important regional festivals include Harela, particularly associated with Kumaon and celebrated to mark the onset of the monsoon and the agricultural cycle; Phool Dei, a spring festival in which young girls traditionally place flowers at the entrances of houses; and Igas, a festival celebrated in the Garhwal region approximately eleven days after Diwali.^{[286][287][288]} Kumaoni Holi, which incorporates distinctive musical traditions, mostly celebrated in the rural areas of Kumaon region.^[289] Kandali Mahotsav celebrated in the Chaudans region of Pithoragarh district once every twelve years, when the Kandali flower blooms.^[290] Women lead the procession, and the week-long festival includes rituals, community feasts, and singing. Bikhauti Mela, celebrated mainly in the Kumaon region, particularly in Dwarahat and Bageshwar, this festival marks the victory of good over evil and coincides with the Hindu New Year.^[291] Ramman is an agro-religious festival and ritual masked theatre endemic to the Garhwali People in the Saloor Dungra village of the Painkhanda Valley in the Chamoli district.^[283]